Physical Sciences

Byron Millet, Weber State University Physical Sciences The relative solvolysis rates of norbornenyl derivatives have been of interest. To date, only one other norbornenyl compound has been found that solvolyzes slower than anti-7-norbornene. It has been suggested that through-space interactions between π-bonds plays a significant role in stabilizing the carbocations. However, through-space interactions do not account for the similar observed solvolysis rates of nearly identical compounds both with and without adjacent π-bonds. Studies have shown that the stability of these compounds is significantly affected by σ-bond interactions. We report on our current computational study of the relative energies of several norbornenyl compounds with and without adjacent π-bonds to evaluate both π-bond and σ-bond effects on the stability of the norbornenyl cations. The effect of a ketone functional group on the relative stability of the carbocation is also analyzed. The literature solvolysis rates of the various norbornenyl derivatives and the stability of their respective cations is compared. With some exceptions, a correlation was found between the stability of a derivative’s carbocation and its respective rate of solvolysis.

Jens Swensen, Southern Utah University Physical Sciences

Lia Bogoev, Utah State University Physical Sciences

Adam Blair, University of Utah Physical Sciences Objectives: Histone covalent modifications influence regulation of gene expression. Changes in histone covalent modifications are triggered by abrupt changes in environment, such as preterm birth followed by mechanical ventilation (MV). Whether histone modifications also occur in the kidney of chronically ventilated preterm lambs is not known. We hypothesized that ventilation of preterm lambs affects histone modification in kidneys.

Lucas Lloyd, Utah Valley University Physical Sciences The high cost of air quality monitoring stations makes it difficult for citizens or local governments to monitor air quality in their own neighborhoods. For example, Utah County, Utah, with an area of 2141 mi2, has only four air-quality monitoring stations: (1) north Provo close to both Provo High School and Brigham Young University (2) Spanish Fork Airport (3) near State Street in Lindon (4) just south of SR-92 on 6000 W in Highland. The air-quality stations monitor levels of CO, NO2, O3, PM-2.5 (particulate matter smaller than 2.5 microns), and PM-10. The objective of this study is to find a much cheaper method of measuring air quality. The objective was addressed by measuring the magnetic susceptibilities of 10 replicates each of the leaves of 12 species of trees (cypress, crab apple, elm, flowering pear, green ash, honey locust, linden, Norway maple, pine, red maple, Russian olive, spruce) collected within a two-mile radius of each of the four air-quality monitoring stations in Utah County. After air-drying and crushing the samples, both low-frequency (0.46 kHz) and high-frequency (4.6 kHz) magnetic susceptibilities were measured with the Bartington MS3 Magnetic Susceptibility Meter. The best correlations between tree leaf magnetic susceptibilities and air-quality parameters were between the three-year average of PM-2.5 and the high-frequency magnetic susceptibility of leaves of pine (Pinus aristata) (R2 = 0.87) and Norway maple (Acer platanoides) (R2 = 0.86). The correlation was used with measured high-frequency magnetic susceptibilities of pine to estimate PM-2.5 in two unmonitored locations heavily impacted by highway traffic (corner of 800 N and I-15 and corner of University Parkway and I-15, both in Orem, Utah) on one day in August 2013. It was found that estimated levels of PM-2.5 were 9.5 µg/cm3 and 8.9 µg/cm3, respectively, which were within the EPA PM-2.5 Standard of 12.0 µg/cm3.

Stephen Ruegg, University of Utah Physical Sciences The Black Peaks Formation (BPF) from the Tornillo Group in Big Bend National Park (BBNP) is comprised of a series of stacked paleosols and sandstone channels deposited by a fluvial system in a sub-tropical intramountain basin during the Laramide orogeny. Paleosols constituting the BPF display alternating drainage and development conditions. The BPF is bounded by the Late Cretaceous Javelina Formation and the Early Eocene Canoe Formation and is therefore thought to be of Paleocene age (65.5-55.8 million years ago). The BPF is an interesting target for paleoenvironmental reconstruction because little data have been generated from the Paleocene for sub-tropical regions, limiting the validation of global climate model predictions in these regions. However, previous attempts to resolve the age of the formation using biostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy and chemostratigraphy gave ambiguous results limiting the potential of the BPF for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. We analyzed the carbon isotope ratio (δ13C ) of carbonate nodules collected from pedologically distinct paleosols throughout the BPF. δ13C of carbonates nodules found in reduced black paleosols are systematically 3-4‰ lower than δ13C from non-black paleosols from neighboring stratigraphic intervals. We hypothesize that this isotopic difference is related to the lower contribution of atmospheric CO2 to soil CO2 in water-logged and/or poorly drained black soils. Large-scale stratigraphic patterns of carbon isotope variations in carbonate nodules from non-black paleosols throughout the BPF strongly resemble well-documented secular changes in δ13C values of marine carbonates for the Paleocene. Several recognizable features are present in both curves, including the Paleocene Carbon Isotope Maximum (PCMI) and possibly the Late Danian carbon isotope excursion (LDE). These features provide a new basis for correlation of the BPF to the global geological timescale, and suggest that the Formation preserves a 6 million year record of deposition and paleoenvironmental conditions spanning the majority of Paleocene time (63-57 million years ago).

Brandon B Davis, Utah Valley University Physical Sciences A recent study (Ferreira 2013) examined concentrations of fluvial As and transition metals associated with As in Provo and American Fork Rivers, which flow westward across the Wasatch Range and drain into Utah Lake. Within Utah Valley average fluvial As for Provo River (As= 0.342 mg/L) and American Fork River (As= 0.152 mg/L) exceeded the EPA standards for freshwater streams for acute exposure (As= 0.340 mg/L) and chronic exposure (As = 0.150 mg/L), respectively. The objective of this study is to determine whether elevated levels of As and other heavy metals also occur in shallow groundwater in Utah Valley. The objective is being addressed by analyzing water samples from the “backyard wells” in Utah Valley, shallow (depths < 10 m), hand-dug wells which many residents maintain as their "emergency water supply" or for small scale agriculture. Since nearly all backyard wells are unregistered, they are being sought through conversations with water departments, real estate listings and local residents. Water and sediment samples are also being collected from American Fork River, Hobble Creek, Provo River and Spanish Fork River, which drain into Utah Lake. Samples are being analyzed for nitrate, phosphate and sulfate using the Hach DR-2700 Spectrophotometer, while the PerkinElmer Optima 8000 ICP-OES is being used to measure for As, the transition elements Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni and Zn, and other associated elements Ag, Cd, Pb and Ti. Preliminary results indicate that shallow groundwater As in the American Fork watershed is much lower (mean As= 0.0022 mg/L) than fluvial As and an excellent negative correlation (R2 = 0.83) between groundwater As and Ti. It is suggested that TiO2, which may originate in the Cottonwood Stock in the American Fork watershed, may play a role in the demobilization of groundwater As. Further results will be reported at the meeting.

Christopher Clements, Utah Valley University Physical Sciences DWR operates the Springville Fish Hatchery raises rainbow trout for stocking lakes and ponds. Since February 2011 the hatchery has observed excessive physical activity among the trout, including jumping out of raceways onto the concrete walkways. Excessive physical activity can result from free carbon dioxide levels above 10 ppm and free carbon dioxide levels in the hatchery water have been measured as high as 17 ppm. They have added some treatment processes before it enters the hatchery and greatly reduced the food intake of the trout, which increase costs and reduce production. This has reduced free carbon dioxide levels to only 15 ppm. The objective of this study is to determine the source of elevated free carbon dioxide and recommend solutions for the problem. The water source for the hatchery is a shallow pond, which is fed by 16 springs, both warm and cold. The objective is being addressed by measuring discharge from each spring and collecting water samples for measurement of free carbon dioxide in addition to other common stressors of rainbow trout. Free carbon dioxide, temperature, pH, electrical conductivity and dissolved oxygen are being measured on-site, while hardness, nitrite, ammonia, copper, iron and zinc are being measured. Free carbon dioxide levels at some warm springs have been measured as high as 25 ppm. Mixing calculations will be carried out to determine whether the discharge and water quality of each spring is consistent with the water quality currently entering the hatchery and whether the removal of one or more springs would result in sufficient water within the acceptable ranges for rainbow trout. If calculations estimate free carbon dioxide significantly lower than the measured free carbon dioxide in the water entering the hatchery, it is possible that additional elevated free carbon dioxide results from the decay of organic matter.

Mallory Millington, University of Utah Physical Sciences Groundwater in the western United States is a limited and important resource for agriculture, industry, and residents alike. Knowing the movement of groundwater is critical to understanding the potential of groundwater contamination from human activities. While groundwater flow is difficult to quantify, it typically recharges in high elevation and discharges towards lower elevation. The first commercially-approved tar sands mine in eastern Utah is located on a ridgetop in the PR Spring area within the high plateaus on the south rim of the Uinta Basin. To evaluate the potential of groundwater contamination due to tar sands mining a study was conducted to understand groundwater flow in the PR Spring area, specifically the canyon directly south of the tar sands mine called Main Canyon. Water samples were taken from four groundwater springs at elevations ranging from 7040 to 8040 ft in or near Main Canyon. Water quality measurements taken in the field showed that the lower springs exhibited higher conductivity (900 vs. 636 μS/cm) and lower dissolved oxygen (30% vs. 88% saturation) than the higher elevation springs. This suggests that the lower springs have had a greater amount of water-rock interaction and so are chemically more evolved than the springs at higher elevations. SF6 age dating indicated that the high elevation springs are younger than the lower elevation springs, 5.5 vs. 16.0 years since recharge respectively. The field parameters and SF6 age data all indicate that higher elevation springs are younger and less chemically evolved than the water at lower elevations. This indicates that the springs in Main Canyon are sourced from local recharge at the ridgetops. Given these findings the tar sands mine should consider taking preventative measures to protect groundwater resources.

Andrew Fletcher, Utah Valley University Physical Sciences Springville, Utah, is known for its high water table and many freshwater wetlands and springs, which gave rise to the name of the city. Flooding of barns is a common problem among farmers in western Springville, which is just east of Utah Lake. These frequent barn floods are anecdotally linked to high-intensity precipitation events and the common use of flood irrigation. The objective of this study is to determine the cause of barn flooding and to make recommendations for mitigation of barn flooding for individual farmers with whom we are working in this area. The objective is being addressed first by using ArcGIS to determine the watershed of each barn and the NRCS (Natural Resource Conservation Service) Web Soil Survey to map hydrologic soil groups within each watershed. Results from the larger-scale Web Soil Survey will be supplemented with measurements of soil hydraulic conductivity using the SoilMoisture Equipment Model 2800K1 Guelph Permeameter. The above data will be used in the NRCS Curve Number Method to estimate the volume of surface runoff expected in a 100-year 24-hour precipitation event. The objective is also being addressed by installing shallow, hand-augured wells for monitoring the depth to the water table during high-intensity precipitation events and flood irrigation events. The results will be used to develop recommendations for a combination of (1) installation of French drains for diversion of stormwater (2) modification of current irrigation methods (3) pumping and diversion of groundwater. Results and specific recommendations for individual farmers will be presented at the meeting.

Jared Weaver, Southern Utah University Physical Sciences Organoarsenic are compounds containing carbon and arsenic. These compounds have been shown to have biological activity and pharmaceutical properties, and some organoarsenic compounds have even displayed potential for aiding in current medical problems up to and including possibilities as anticancer agents. Currently relatively little research is being done on organoarsenic compounds by the pharmaceutical community due to current views from the media based largely upon the toxicity of their inorganic arsenic counterparts (inorganic compounds are compounds not containing carbon), organoarsenic compounds however have significantly toxicity. Also, like with any medicine, toxicity depends predominately upon concentration, and given a high enough concentration organoarsenic compounds would logically follow the same trend. Synthesis of a large variety of novel organoarsenic compounds has been found via a reaction involving a variety of aldehydes or ketones and 2-(Dichloroarsino)benzaminium chloride. Research will focus on synthesis, isolation, and characterization of a library of organoarsenic compounds and then determine their respective biological activities. Synthesis will determine mechanistic requirements of said reaction and will be done to produce a diverse selection of organoarsenic compounds. Compounds will be isolated through precipitation of product and vacuum filtration of formed product. Structure will be determined through IR, NMR, and Gas Chromatography/ Mass Spectrometry, and through X-ray crystallography. Biological activity is suspected with potential for testing via a Kirby-Bauer Disc treatment. It is hypothesized that novel organoarsenic products will be formed by reaction of 2-(Dichloroarsino)benzaminium chloride with all carbonyl compounds containing an alpha carbon with at least one proton used, and that compounds synthesized will inhibit bacterial growth.

Tucker Chapman, Brigham Young University Physical Sciences The Provo River provides the opportunity to study three systems from low to high anthropogenic activity. Its headwaters are in an undeveloped area of the Uinta Mountains. The river then moves into a valley that is developing from an agricultural to an urban system. The lower portion of the river moves into the urbanized Utah Valley. These systems give the ability to study the changes in trace element chemistry from a variety of sources. Trace element data were collected during the 2013 water year including the spring snow melt. Correlation was analyzed among the different trace elements using multivariate statistics in order to discover trace element sources. The element loads were calculated using USGS Load Estimator (LOADEST) software. The study has implications involving the drinking water of >2 million people in the Utah and Salt Lake valleys and the changes that the shift from agriculture to urban is causing.

Samuel Leventhal, University of Utah Physics The uncertainty existing within the scientific community as to why quantum mechanics (QM) behaves as it does comes from the fact there exists no mathematically sound approach for deriving the postulates of QM. It is the purpose of our research to present a derivation for the postulates of QM through the theory of Scale Relativity (SR), followed by a search for physical signatures of SR in the mechanics of celestial bodies. The construction of SR is based on an extension of the relativity principle to scale transformations coupled with a loss of differentiability. Our first paper presents the derivation of QM through scale relativity. During the SR derivation we also show fundamental qualities of QM, such as the presence of complex numbers in state functions. Lastly, the seemingly unrelated behaviors between relativity and quantum phenomena are shown a single mathematical formulation, only to change form due to scale. The new resolution variable within the adapted Schrodinger equation allows it to become applicable to macroscopic scales allowing us to look at large scale mechanics for signs of SR. Gravitation being scale invariant leads it to be a perfect candidate for experimental purposes. Our second paper investigates whether or not celestial bodies, formed by chaotic gravitational structuring, obey the properties of a Schrodinger equation dependent on the Keplerian potential. If so SR implies solar systems would form along probability distributions predicted by the square magnitude of the Schrodinger-Keplerian wave equation. In theory a planets probability distribution would depend on discrete variables, denoted orbital rank, n=n. In search for SR it is sufficient to see if planets tend to have orbital ranks near integer values. We start by calculating the orbital ranks within various solar systems, followed by testing whether the accumulation of planets’ rank near integer values is a probable event. To test this we take the squared difference between the calculated rank and the nearest integer. As a result we are able to test how likely orbital structuring will be discrete. Our results show a strong certainty that orbital rank is likely to accumulate near integer values.

Natascha Knowlton, University of Utah Chemistry The chemical derivatization of oxide surfaces (silica, alumina, glass) is critical to the development of separation media, sensing surfaces, or biocompatible interfaces. Presently, there are few analytical methods that allow the detection and characterization of functionalized monolayers on these surfaces. Raman scattering spectroscopy can provide useful structural information in the form of vibrational spectra of molecules of interest, and it is compatible with oxide substrates. Raman scattering, however, is a very weak effect so that its application to detecting monolayers is challenging. In this work, two approaches to detecting and characterizing molecular layers on oxide surfaces with Raman spectroscopy are compared. First, gold colloidal nanoparticles are deposited onto the surface of interest, which enhance the Raman scattering near the gold surface by surface-plasmon resonance. This technique is suitable for ex situ analysis of monolayers on planar surfaces. Secondly, monomolecular layers can also be detected by Raman scattering on porous oxide supports such as alumina or silica without any optical enhancement due to the very high surface area of these materials. Detection in porous particles is compatible with in situ monitoring of surface derivatization reactions. These two methods are compared for monitoring of reactions of silane-coupling agents and their subsequent functional group transformations on glass and silica surfaces.

Alyssa Brown, Southern Utah University Physical Science It has been long debated whether early astronomers could truly see any detail during their first observation and rough sketches of the satellites of Jupiter. Many have argued against the accuracy and validity of such drawings, claiming the lack of technological advance led to rough hewn and mediocre drawings with little evidence of these individuals having truly seen these satellites. Through our research, we hope to prove validity in those early sketches based on current knowledge. By converting the dates and times each early sketch was created into Julian Calendar days, then using the date obtained to calculate the position of each individual satellite of Jupiter, as well as the face that was approximately facing Earth at the time the sketch was made, we can compare current images to those previously obtained sketches. By analyzing the sketches for determining features as well as the relative location of those features in relation to their approximate location on the satellite face the astronomer was most likely observing, we can either validate or disclaim these early sketches. This experiment will provide beneficial insight into the accuracy of primitive sketches made centuries before more detailed information was discovered about the celestial bodies that continue to fascinate us. The information gained from this experiment may even lend a greater knowledge and understanding of how to study these celestial bodies, since if the information presented by these early sketches were accurate, we could potentially reevaluate the manner in which we currently conduct our present observation.

Daniel Gray, Utah Valley University Physics Mini black holes (BH) of various mass could be left over in space from the early expansion Big Bang phase (so called primordial BHs). As a result of interaction of those BHs with interstellar hydrogen they could form a bound system with an electron or a proton (or both). What would such system look like? Would it be stable, metastable, or would BH quickly consume the orbiting particle? How much is life time of such “gravitational atom”? If such system is stable then what is the size of it; how much is the bonding energy of its ground state (=ionization potential energy) and how much are the energies of its exited states? Are those atoms “gravitational atoms” observable? What other properties do they have? Based on known physics we try to analyze the behavior of such exotic systems and answer the above questions for black holes of various masses.

Michael Strange, Utah State University Geology For the past century, the standard technique used to interpret soft-tissue preservation in the fossil record has been the camera lucida drawing. A new technique called False Color Treatment (FCT), which uses digital photography and photo manipulation, shows an increased ability to not only interpret soft-tissue features but also identify trace amounts. Hyolithids from the Cambrian of northern Utah were used to test the capabilities of FCT. Results were then compared to camera lucida drawings of the same specimens. Comparisons show the camera lucida drawings missed areas of soft-tissue that FCT found. Depending on the specimen, and the type of preservation, this disparity in interpretations can increase or decrease. Hyolithid specimens from the Spence Shale show an odd form of Burgess Shale Type (BST) preservation which makes them particularly well suited for FCT manipulation. Overall, False Color Treatment provides an informative and aesthetic method for interpreting soft-tissue fossils with BST-like preservation.

Kelby Peterson, Utah State University Physics The State of Utah Space Environment & Contamination Study (SUSpECS) experiment flown on the Materials International Space Station Experiment 6 (MISSE-6) was an experiment designed to examine the consequences of the space environment on various materials used in space-component design. SUSpECS was comprised of approximately 180 samples that were suspended from the side of the International Space Station (ISS) for 18 months and returned to allow for pre- and post-flight comparisons. The sample with the most evident changes was a thin film of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) MylarTM coated with Vapor Deposited Aluminum (VDA). The post-flight analysis showed evidence of atomic oxygen erosion of the VDA layer, UV-induced discoloration of the polymer, and a crater created by a micrometeoroid impact. This presentation focuses on the UV-induced discoloration and laboratory tests to simulate these effects. The UV tests expose similar polymers to varying intensities of vacuum UV radiation from deuterium lamps over a condensed time span and quantify the discoloration of the polymers through comparison of the UV/Vis/NIR reflection spectra. The results from the UV simulation are used to determine the approximate time period of the UV exposure for the SUSpECS sample and in turn the erosion rate of the VDA layer.

Fehmi Yasin, Westminster College Physics It has long been a goal to achieve higher spatial resolution in optical imaging and spectroscopy. Recently, a concept emerged that merges optical microscopy with scanning probe microscopy, increasing the spatial resolution of optical imaging beyond the diffraction limit. The scanning probe tip’s optical antenna properties and the local near-field coupling between its apex and the sample allows for few nanometer optical spatial resolution (Atkin, Berweger, Jones, and Raschke 2012). We investigate a nano-imaging technique, known as scattering scanning near-field optical microscopy (s-SNOM) and image several different materials using said technique. We report our data and provide potential paths for future work.

Stevie Norcross, Westminster College Chemistry Gold nanostructures exhibit tunable optical properties that depend on a nanomaterial’s composition, shape, and size. These optical properties arise from a phenomenon known as the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), which contributes to surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectra. SERS enhances detection by up to 9 orders of magnitude vs. normal Raman scattering thereby routinely improving detection limits of target molecules to nM μM concentrations. In this study, gold nanorods, which exhibit tunable LSPR properties from the visible to near-IR regions, were synthesized using a solution phase seed-mediated growth method. LSPR tunability was achieved by varying gold nanorod growth temperature, silver ion concentration, or reducing agent (ascorbic acid) concentration. Systematically varying these parameters yielded gold nanorods with LSPR wavelength maximums ranging from 692 to 763 nm. By increasing the concentration of ascorbic acid from 0.54 mM to 0.63 mM, gold nanorods with an average LSPR wavelength maximum of 755 ± 8 nm were synthesized. Following the synthesis, the gold nanorods were used for the direct and enhanced detection of the anti-cancer drug, 6-mercaptopurine and one of its metabolites, 6-thiouric acid. It was observed that as molecular concentrations were increased signal intensities systematically increased; therefore, the identification and quantification of each molecule individually as well as in a mixture of the molecules in buffer was achieved.

Jim Goodman, Westminster College Chemistry Mercury is a toxic element that adversely impacts the health of wildlife and ecosystems worldwide. While all forms of mercury are toxic, methylmercury is the only form of mercury that is biomagnified, and thus organisms with the highest mercury concentrations and most at risk to mercury toxicity are typically the top predators in an ecosystem. To evaluate if arachnids, a top predator in the insect realm, are bioaccumulating mercury a spatial and temporal study of mercury bioaccumulation in arachnids and terrestrial invertebrates was conducted at the Great Salt Lake. Total mercury (HgT) and methylmercury (MMHg) concentrations were measured in arachnids collected once each month from two different sites on Antelope Island in the Great Salt Lake, and at a control site at Utah Lake, a fresh water lake to the south where mercury concentrations in the water column are substantially lower. Average concentrations of HgT and MMHg in arachnids from Antelope Island were 2600 ± 497 ppb and 1690 ± 169 ppb, respectively. These were significantly higher than the HgT and MMHg concentrations in arachnids at Utah Lake, where they are only 72 ± 54 ppb and 42 ± 30 ppb, respectively. Substantial spatial variation in HgT and MMHg concentrations in arachnids at the two sites on Antelope Island was also documented, and may be due to differences in the abundance of brine fly prey at the different locations.

Justin Nybo, Weber State University Chemistry Finding a source of energy to supply the demands of energy consumption globally is one of the biggest problems facing society today. With fuel for transportation, heating, and manufacturing representing 70% of energy demands, an efficient fuel source must be used to supply the world’s energy needs (Gouveia and Oliveira, 2009). Algae represent an abundant source of biomass that could be used as a source to make biodiesel. Over the past several years, microalgae have become a logical potential candidate for producing biofuel in large masses. This is mainly due to the fact that they are more efficient at photosynthetic processes than traditional crops grown on the land (Vasudevan, 2008). Another feature of algae that make it suitable as a source for biodiesel is the fact that it can survive in harsh environments, such as salty water or compromised water where crops would not be able to grow (Mata et al., 2010). For my project, I researched and tested the effect of varying light frequency and intensity on the lipid production of Chlorella vulgaris algae. I along with Dr. Herzog and Abram Bernard, set up an array involving 40 flasks that were split into 8 rows and 5 columns. Each row had a unique frequency of light that came from a combination of red, green or blue LEDs. Each column varied the light intensity by changing the distance of the flask from the light source. The goal of our research was to show that algae of the species Chlorella vulgaris could be grown in this system and that algae growth rates were dependent on light frequency and intensity. This was accomplished by converting the lipids produced by the algae into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and then analyzing the FAMEs using a gas chromatograph (GC). In order for this analysis to be effective in terms of accuracy and precision, a quantitative method was developed and verified to quantify the lipid production of the algae under different light conditions. The light intensity and the number of photons of light emitted in each column were monitored by Chandler Greenwell, a fellow Chemistry student. The correlation between light intensity and the quantity of algae was noted during this project.

Chelsie Greer, Weber State University Chemistry Luminol with its chemiluminescense properties can be used at crime scenes to develop and document bloodstains. By itself, luminol cannot be used because it destroys the blood stain pattern details. Using a fixing agent before applying luminol will chemically fix the detail of the bloodstain, preserving the pattern for analysis. 5-Sulfosalicylic acid (5-SSA) is used as a fixing agent and can be applied to bloodstains before the luminol to adhere the blood to the surface, but it interferes with the luminosity. We investigated the degradation effects of luminol and 5-SSA to develop a better method to use both chemicals together. Blood patterns were placed onto glass, systematically treated with a series of Bluestar (a commercial, luminol-based, blood detection reagent), 5-SSA and/or buffered rinse solutions then, photographed immediately. The luminol intensity was measured by processing digital photographs of the luminescent blood stain through Image J to examine the individual pixels of the photographs. The effect of the treatment on the pattern fastness was measured by making fingerprint impression in blood, and having fingerprint analyst score the treated prints on their second level detail quality. Results will be presented to show if an intermediate rinse between the application of the blood fixing reagent and the application of luminol can mitigate some of the negative effects of this procedure.

Abram Bernard, Weber State University Chemistry Alternative energy sources are becoming more important in today’s society. Algae provide a potential source of fuel that can is currently under study by many in the scientific community. The fats that algae can produce can be used as biofuel. Algae is a good candidate as a biofuel source because it can be grown in many conditions that crops, such as corn, cannot. Certain algae have very high percentages of fat that can be used for biofuel and it can be grown in large quantities. To add to the knowledge of algae and its potential as a fuel source, we have researched the effects of varying light conditions on the algae’s fat production. Working with faculty in the chemistry and microbiology departments at Weber State University, we set up an experiment to discover the effects of different wavelengths of light on fat production in algae. 40 samples of Chlorella Vulgaris were grown in different light environments. Our apparatus separated the algae into 8 different colored lights at 5 different. The intensity of light was quantified to allow us to map the changes. We extracted the fat from these samples using a transesterification method previously used on meat and analyzed them using a gas chromatography method we developed. Currently we are analyzing the correlations between the quantified light data, the mass of algae grown, and the amount of fats present in these samples. We hope to be able to draw conclusions from this data about the effects of varying light wavelengths and intensities on the fat production of algae. From these conclusions, we would be able to contribute to the research of algae as a source of biofuel. We have also approached this project as a way of developing interdisciplinary research here at Weber State University. Our work has not only provided us with data on this project but has also been involved in developing methods for future research by other undergraduates.

Joseph Roring, Utah Valley University Physics Removal of all cancerous tissue in breast conservation surgery (BCS) is critical to prevent local recurrence. Unfortunately, 30-50% of patients require additional surgery due to failure to resect all the necessary tissue. A real-time method for detecting infected tissue is therefore desirable. Previous studies have shown that the complexity of high-frequency (50 MHz) ultrasonic spectra can be correlated to a range of breast pathologies in BCS. However, the mechanism behind this correlation is still not very well understood. The purpose of this research is to explore the connection between tissue micro-heterogeneity and ultrasonic spectral complexity using breast tissue phantoms, i.e. materials that mimic breast tissue properties and microstructure. A physical basis can then be determined that links ultrasonic measurements to breast tissue pathology. Phantoms were made from a Knox® gelatin base and soluble fiber (Metamucil®). Heterogeneities simulating lobular and ductal components of mammary glands were created through the addition of polyethylene microspheres and nylon fibers. Pitch-catch and pulse-echo waveforms were acquired from the samples using high-frequency ultrasound. The data were analyzed by measuring the number of peaks (the peak density) in the first-order spectrum (Fourier transform of the time-domain waveform) and the slope of the second-order spectrum (two consecutive Fourier transforms of the time-domain waveform). The phantom specimens displayed first-order peak densities that were significantly greater and second-order spectral slopes that were significantly lower than homogeneous control samples. Phantoms with large fibers (250 micrometer diameter) showed the highest peak densities with values greater than 3x those of the controls. The peak density trend of the phantom samples with increased microscopic heterogeneity was consistent with data of breast tissue specimens. These results provide a physical mechanism for the use of these parameters in the imaging of breast tissues with atypical and malignant pathologies.

Jeremy Redd, Utah Valley University Physics Future space propulsion systems will likely use annihilation of matter and antimatter in propulsion system. Annihilation of matter and antimatter is not only the energy source of ultimate density 9×10^16 J/kg but also allows to utilize ultimate exhaust speed the speed of light c thus potentially allows to accelerate a payload to ultrarelativistic velocities. Such velocities make interstellar and even intergalactic travel possible in the lifetime of one generation only (20-30 years). In our presentation we discuss advantages and disadvantages of interstellar travel with relativistic and ultra-relativistic velocities. Using relativistic Tsiolkovsky rocket equation we also discuss the feasibility of achieving relativistic velocities with annihilation powered photon engine and technical challenges to build such engine.

David Pease, Utah Valley University Physics Transition regions to higher resonant modes of a bottle-shaped thermoacoustic prime mover (neck: 5.39 cm long, 1.91 cm ID; variable cavity with a sliding piston: up to 38 cm long, 4.76 ID) were studied. As the piston is extended, lengthening the cavity, starting from the neck, a transition of the dominant frequency from the fundamental to the first overtone occurs. However, when the length is then shortened, transition back to the first mode does occur at the same piston position, revealing hysteresis. Within the window of hysteresis for the cavity length, either state of the fundamental or first overtone is possible. Transition regions to higher modes continue as the length of the cavity is increased. The position and width of the hysteresis was studied for the first two transition regions as a function of input power and stack volume filling factor. Input powers studied were between 12.0 and 16.5 W and volume filling factors for the stack were about 3.0, 3.7 and 4.9%. The transition regions occurred with cavity lengths between 12.6 and 14.0 cm for the first transition and between 25.0 and 27.8 cm for the second transition. Preliminary results indicate that the transition region occurs shallower in the cavity and the hysteresis widens as the input power is increased. The hysteresis is wider for the second transition region. Decreasing the stack mass causes an increase of the hysteresis width, but has no strong effect on the hysteresis depth.

Joshua Jeffs, Utah Valley University Chemistry The electron transport chain (ETC) is a system within a cell that couples electron transfer between a donor and a receptor. The ETC is made up of several components, specifically: complexes one through four, a coenzyme Q, and a cytochrome complex. Cytochrome C oxidase (CcO), also known as complex IV, uses electrons and H_ ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water. CcO is made up of several subunits or proteins that are responsible for the function of CcO. The creation of CcO involves multiple steps that include many different gene products or proteins. (3) Of these proteins several are from a specific type of family called cysteine-X _-cysteine motifs (twin CX_C). The cysteine residues in the cysteine pairs are each spaced by nine residues. The best characterized protein of this group is Cox17, a copper-binding protein that plays a role in copper transfer to CcO. There are 14 potential proteins that are twin-Cx_C motifs (1). There were four knock out strains that showed resistance when plated on YPD with varying concentrations of hydrogen peroxide: 0.010%, 0.014%, 0.018%, and 0.022%. Strains lacking CMC4, MIC14, MIC17, and PET191 all showed resistance to hydrogen peroxide compared to the parental strain. Strains lacking MDM35 and COX23 showed sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide. These result may indicate a tie to impaired or incomplete cytochrome c oxidase assembly.

Jacob Wright, Utah Valley University Physics Dissonant overtones of closed bottle-shaped thermoacoustic prime movers are discussed. The resonator consists of two concentric cylinders with differing cross-sectional areas, closed at the outer ends. The condition for resonance results in a transcendental equation, which is solved numerically. The neck and cavity behave as coupled resonators, where the neck is a quarter-wave resonator and the cavity is a half-wave resonator. A variable cylindrical cavity with a sliding piston was constructed to study the nature of the device as the cavity length is varied. The stack is located in the neck region and the length and inner diameter of the neck are 5.39 and 1.91 cm, respectively. The inner diameter of the cavity is 4.76 cm and has a maximum length of 38 cm. The dominant mode of operation depends on the length of the cavity, favoring successively higher modes as the cavity length increases. The volume filling factor of the stack material was varied from 2 to 5% to determine whether the amount of stack material affects the transitions. These filling factors were selected to yield hydraulic radii comparable to the thermal penetration depth for the highest and lowest possible fundamental frequencies of the system. The transition to higher modes occurs roughly where the higher mode overlaps with the fundamental frequency of the neck region, and is independent of the stack filling factor. With the given dimensions, three transitions to higher modes were observed, with frequencies consistent with the model.

Kent Hartley, Utah State University Physics Faraday cups provide a simple and efficient apparatus to measure the absolute magnitude of charge particle fluxes, and with the addition of a retarding field analyzer and defining apertures the capability to determine the energy and angular distributions of the fluxes. Through careful design of the electron optics, a Faraday cup can be tailored to meet specific requirements for detector size, minimum detectable flux, collection efficiency, absolute accuracy, energy discrimination, and angular resolution. This work explores design concepts through electric field and charged particle trajectory simulations, theoretical analysis, and evaluation of experimental prototypes to develop compact, high efficiency Faraday cups capable of a range of energy and angular resolutions. The designs rely on high efficiency Faraday cups coupled with grid-free Einzel lens energy analyzers for nearly energy-independent determination of absolute fluxes. We also review specific designs and applications of these Faraday cup detectors to electron emission and transport studies, spacecraft charging applications, and electron beam characterization measurements done in conjunction with various projects conducted by the Materials Physics Group.

Sally Hansen, Utah Valley University Chemistry Cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) or complex IV is the terminal component of the electron transport chain. In eukaryotic organisms, CcO is composed of 12-13 subunits. The core of eukaryotic CcO contains three mitochondrially encoded subunits that comprise the catalytic core of the complex and several gene products encoded for by the nucleus (1). Essential to the redox function of CcO are several critical cofactors: two hemes and two copper centers (2). The crystal structure of CcO has led us to several insights about its structural components and catalytic activity (3). However, a large set of nuclear gene products are essential for CcO activity that are not part of the structural machinery of the complex (4,5). These components have been implicated in various stages of CcO assembly including, heme processing and insertion (6), CuA and CuB site delivery and insertion (7), subunit processing and subunit assembly (8,9). Among them are well characterized CcO assembly factors that involve the biogenesis of the CuA and CuB sites in CcO. Sco I, Cox17, Cox 11 and Cox23 are all essential to CcO activity and have properties that appear to be critical to the maturation of the CuA and CuB sites(10-13). Cmc4 appears to be involved in cytochrome c oxidase biogenesis. Peroxide phenotypes have been linked to cytochrome c oxidase assembly (14). Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains lacking CMC4 were found to exhibit peroxide resistance when compared wild type parental stains. Resistance was seen in liquid culture and in media containing glucose and glycerol. These results may indicate that cytochrome c oxidase assembly is altered in CMC4 deletion stains.

Ryan Smith, Brigham Young University Geological Sciences Bhutan, a remote country in the Himalayas, has an underdeveloped economy that relies heavily on hydro-electric power and agriculture. Glacial lake outburst floods, or GLOFs, threaten both of these sectors of their economy. More importantly, they threaten human lives. In this study, I will estimate the increase in volume of the most rapidly growing glacial lakes in the Bhutanese Himalayas and investigate potential causes of their growth. In addition, I will develop a simple model to simulate the flooding effects of a GLOF on downstream cropland and villages.

Beau Hilton, Brigham Young University Physics/Acoustics The Udu drum, sometimes called the water pot drum, is a traditional Nigerian instrument. Musicians who play the Udu exploit its aerophone and idiophone resonances. This paper will discuss an electrical equivalent circuit model for the Udu Utar, a specific type of Udu, to predict the low frequency aerophone resonances and scanning laser vibrometer measurements to determine the mode shapes of the dominant idiophone resonances. These analyses not only provide an understanding of the unique sound of the Udu instrument but may also be used by instrument designers to create instruments with resonance frequencies at traditional musical intervals for the various tones produced and to create musical harmonic ratios.

Lisa Heppler, Brigham Young University Chemistry and Biochemistry Solid breast tumors contain heterogenous microenvironments where tumor cells are often exposed to metabolic stress (e.g., hypoxia due to poor blood supply). Such environments select for tumor cells that can adapt metabolically to survive, while other cells fail to adapt and undergo cell death. The survival of cells through periods of hypoxia can promote chemoresistance and metastasis (1). Thus, it is critical that we develop therapeutic strategies to enhance metabolic-stress-induced tumor cell death. One promising strategy is the modulation of lysine acetylation pathways by HDAC inhibitors that potently pro- mote cell death in response to various stimuli, including hypoxia/glucose withdrawal. Given the relatively non-specific nature of chemical HDAC inhibitors, the precise acetylation-regulating enzymes and pathways that govern cell death in these settings have yet to be fully elucidated. Our goal is to identify the cellular factors that link acetylation to cell death in response to hypoxia and other metabolic stresses, with the hope that such factors could be exploited therapeutically in cancer. Previous studies have implicated protein lysine acetylation in the coordination of cellular metabolism to the available nutrient supply (2). In line with this idea, our preliminary data suggest that lysine acetylation pathways dictate whether breast tumor cells survive (through metabolic adaptation) or die in response to hypoxia and glucose deprivation. Moreover, we have observed that general increases in protein lysine acetylation precede the activation of pro-apoptotic caspases in response to these stresses. In addition, our proteomics efforts have shown that breast tumors that are sensitive to hypoxia/glucose withdrawal exhibit significant increases in acetylation across the proteome, whereas resistant cells show very little change. Together, our data suggest that lysine acetylation pathways play a role in metabolic adaption and survival under conditions of hypoxia/glucose withdrawal. We are currently using an RNAi approach to target all known deacetylases, acetyl-transferases, and metabolic enzymes that modulate acetylation (e.g., acetyl-CoA synthetase) in order to identify the specific acetylation-regulating factors that govern tumor cell susceptibility to metabolic stress.

Paul Chidsey, Brigham Young University Chemistry and Biochemistry It has been reported that an estimated 11% of women in the population have undiagnosed endometriosis, emphasizing the need for early detection tests and treatment options. Diagnosis is typically determined through an analysis of symptoms, including painful menstrual cycles, pain in the lower abdomen, and prolonged menstrual cramping. Diagnosis is further confirmed through invasive procedures such as transvaginal ultrasound and pelvic laparoscopy. Serum proteomic studies in which small biomolecules and peptides are analyzed for biological significance in endometriosis cases and controls can lead to the discovery of novel methods whereby the disease is detected and eventually treated earlier in development without the need of invasive procedures. Comparative analysis of cases and controls through mass spectroscopy has led to the discovery of novel biomarkers capable of correctly identifying individuals with endometriosis. Further pursuing this study will allow for a greater understanding of the genesis of the disease, eventually uncovering the mechanism whereby endometriosis develops.

Devon Blake, Brigham Young University Chemistry and Biochemistry G proteins play a vital role in cellular signaling. It has recently been shown that the nascent G polypeptide requires the assistance of phosducin-like protein 1 (PhLP1) for proper folding and formation of the G beta gamma dimer. This mechanism is derived from cell culture experiments and structural data, but until now had yet to be tested in vivo. We tested PhLP1 function in vivo using retinal rod photoreceptor-specific PhLP1 conditional knockout mice. Electroretinogram analyses of these mice showed a dramatic decrease in light sensitivity of rod photoreceptors. Consistent with this finding, the expression of all subunits of the photoreceptor G protein was reduced by 80%. This decrease was reflected in a similar decrease in the amount of G beta gamma dimers. All of these in vivo results are consistent with the hypothesis that PhLP1 is required for G beta gamma assembly and G protein signaling.

Rachel Nydegger, Utah State University Physics Multi-messenger astronomy employs both electromagnetic and gravitational-wave detectors to paint a richer picture of celestial objects, providing more depth and information. The interferometers utilized for gravitational-wave observations receive input from very broad fields of view on the sky, typically a few square degrees. To have simultaneous electromagnetic observations (typically less than one square degree) requires innovative techniques for the telescopes to find the origin of radiation. One idea is to “tile” the view of the interferometer, using multiple telescopes to simultaneously point at different areas of the field to observe the source. One difficulty of this observing paradigm is distinguishing random electromagnetic variable sources from a gravitational-wave counterpart. To better understand this problem, this project repeatedly observes a single field on the sky. Each observation is analyzed to count the number of sources that appear in the field as a function of brightness. Repeating this process over time will yield the frequency of random optical transients, as well as characterize the population and brightness distribution of variables in the field. Future work will extend this observation campaign to cover different galactic latitudes.

Ben LaRiviere, Utah State University Geology The DOE-funded HotSpot Project out of Utah State University has collected a more than mile-deep core from the central Snake River Plain, Idaho, to study the geologic history of the area. The core consists mostly of volcanic basalt, however 16 sediment layers have been identified and sampled between the basalt-flow layers. These layers of sediment are the key to understanding environmental conditions on the Snake River Plain between basalt flows. The sediment was sampled in 25cm increments and the grain size of the sediments were examined in a laser particle size analyzer to better understand depositional conditions on the snake river during the past 5 million years. The analysis revealed that the majority of the sediment was deposited as windblown silt with several fluvial deposits.

Joseph Jensen, Utah State University Physics The earths ionosphere is very important in our everyday life. During large solar flares the ionosphere expands to the point of disrupting communications from GPS, military, and commercial communications satellites, and even radio blackouts can occur. The EVE instrument on the SDO satellite has given unprecedented spectral resolution for the Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) spectrum with a time cadence of 10 seconds. This has made it possible to analyze flare spectra as never before. Using the Time Dependant Ionospheric Model (TDIM) we have input this new spectral data for large solar flares and analyzed the effect on the ionosphere. We take as a test case the X1.6 flare on March 9, 2011. Even this minor X-class provides insight into how the ionospheric layers respond differently to solar flares.

Alyssa Brown, Southern Utah University Physical Science Coal Creek is a perennial stream that runs through Cedar City, Utah and drains into Rush Lake. The basin is a closed basin, meaning that most of the surface water will eventually become ground water, the main source of drinking water for Cedar City. Because of the increase of urbanization of this region in par- ticular, there is a higher probability of pollutants entering the water source and greatly affecting the quality of the drinking water. Most pollutants are characterized as nonpoint source pollution, which is defined by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as, “land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage, seepage or hydrologic modification” and is the leading cause of water quality problems (Environmental Protection Agency, 2012). Common sources of land runoff, as defined by the EPA, include septic waste, lawn and garden fertilizers, improperly disposed chemicals, automobile fluids, vehicle emissions, and road deicers (Environmental Protection Agency, 2012). In order to characterize the pollutants found in samples and determine the concentration of ions of interest, ion chromatography was used. By determining the identity and concentrations of particular ions, the presence of nonpoint pollution, and the source, may be determined. This study may lead to better indications of where major sources of drinking water pollutants are originating, illustrating the effect that urbanization and rapid population growth have on the quality of both surface and ground water. This will allow better characterization of pollutants and pollution sources in the future.

Brennan Young, Utah State University Geology Thermal springs in northern Utah and southeastern Idaho mostly lie near active or inactive Basin-and-Range normal faults. They are dynamic systems, and the character of some has changed drastically since work as early as the 1980’s (Blackett and Wakefield, 2002; IDWR, 2001). We examined and sampled 60 thermal springs and most samples met criteria for cation geothermometers, or mathematical-geochemical tools used to estimate the maximum temperature of hydrothermal reservoirs. Of the 60 springs, 51 met criteria for the Na-K-Ca geothermometer and the remaining nine springs did not meet the criteria for the K-Mg, Na-K, Na-K-Ca, or Na-K-Ca-Mg cation geothermometers used in this project (Fournier and Truesdell, 1973; Fournier and Potter, 1979; Giggenbach, 1988). Of those 51 springs, only one is considered to be in partial equilibrium with the thermal reservoir, and estimates a reservoir temperature of 79°C (Giggenbach, 1988). Though the majority of springs exhibit a chemical signature of having mixed with shallow groundwater (Giggenbach, 1988), the Na-K-Ca geothermometer gives the most reliable results for springs in northern Utah and southeastern Idaho, but only for springs with surface temperatures exceeding 30°C and with greater than 1000 ppm total dissolved solids (TDS). Geothermometer results for these springs yield reservoir temperature estimates between 193 and 249°C.

Cathy Crawford, Utah State University Chemistry and Biochemistry In the spirit of many chemistry instructors’ longstanding interest in making teaching labs less “cookbook-like” and more research-driven, we recently restructured our second-semester sophomore organic chemistry lab to include a synthesis project that was chosen, designed, and carried out by students. Students were given the incentive of co-authorship on any publications resulting from their work. This led to the development of total syntheses of JBIR-94 and JBIR-125, new antioxidative/anticancer compounds with radical-scavenging potencies comparable to those of a-tocopherol, the active constituent in Vitamin E. Our presentation will summarize our progress and findings, and includes our progress on bioactivity studies conducted on the JBIR’s and their synthetic precursors.

McDowell, Trevor; Durfee Dallin (Utah Valley University)
Faculty Advisor: Durfee, Dallin (College of Science, Physics)

Interference Pattern Structured Illumination Imaging (IPSII) utilizing Mach-Zehnder Interferometry, allows us to surpass the Abbe Limit of traditional imaging techniques. To aid in this endeavor, my primary objective is to utilize a Michelson-Morley Interferometer with one of the arms being a long-distance, 300mm or greater, linear translation stage. Using the long-distance linear translation stage (LDLTS) to test both the repeatability and as well as angular stability of various LDLTS units so we may take measurements of fringe lines at arcseconds approaching a zero degree of angle. Though many designs currently available for consumer use have the linear repeatability needed, most if not all lack the angular stability needed. As such we are currently experimenting with current designs to see where the variances are and work in improvements so we may design our own LDLTS so we may be able to take such extreme angle measurements. In addition to improving the repeatability and angular stability of LDLTS's, the automation of the kinematic mirror mounts utilizing stepper motors is another primary concern. Our current issue is that we need to be able to adjust the reflecting mirrors on both the x-axis and y-axis and to do this the stepper motors need a travel distance of 27mm along the z-axis. The issue we have is we need a stable mount that addresses any torque lash while keeping them still and allowing movement on the z-axis. Through materials research for what to be used with the LDLTS as well as the stepper motor mounts, we will be able to take data points and processes data at a much greater and more accurate rate than we have in the past. Resulting in more time to conduct experiments and less time waiting for results.

Lake, Alexander; Soboleva, Tatiana; Berreau, Lisa (Utah State University)
Faculty Advisor: Berreau, Lisa (College of Science, Chemistry and Biochemistry)

Carbon Monoxide (CO) has been found to have a wide range of potential therapeutic effects. For example, low concentrations of CO have been shown to produce anti-inflammatory, anti-hypoxia, anti-proliferative, and anti-apoptotic effects, as well as vasodilation. CO-releasing molecules (CORMs), particularly those which release CO upon triggering with light in the visible range (photoCORMs), are of significant current interest for targeted CO delivery. Our laboratory is developing extended flavonols as highly tunable tunable photoCORMs. In this presentation, the synthesis, characterization, and CO release reactivity studies exploring the use of flavonol esters as CO delivery molecules will be presented.

Watts, Austin; Crook, M. B. (Weber State University)
Faculty Advisor: Crook, Matthew (College of Science, Microbiology)

Auxin is a known growth hormone for plants and many plant-beneficial bacteria are known to produce it. It has previously been shown that Rhizobium sp. IRBG74 promotes growth of rice, but the mechanism is unknown. We hypothesized that Rhizobium sp. IRBG74 accomplishes this by production and secretion of auxin. To address this hypothesis, we first performed a bioinformatic analysis to identify putative auxin biosynthesis genes in the genome of IRBG74 using BLAST with known auxin biosynthesis genes as queries. To test whether the genes identified by BLAST play a role in promoting growth of rice, we are making in-frame deletions of each one. Briefly, we use overlap-extension PCR to create and stitch together deletion fragments and then we clone these fragments into the sacB deletion vector pJQ200SK. The target genes are then disrupted by homologous recombination and then deintegration is selected for with sucrose. After this is done we test the mutant to verify the deletion occurred by PCR. Once the deletion mutants are verified, each one is tested on rice seedlings and compared to wild-type IRBG74. Rice growth is quantified by shoot dry weight and by root branching, as measured using ImageJ.

Stokes, Jessica; Burnett, Brandon (Weber State University)
Faculty Advisor: Burnett, Brandon (Weber State University, Chemistry)

Mechanochemistry has become a growing avenue for materials synthesis, as it typically requires little to no solvent, and often creates different crystalline phases compared to traditional synthetic methods. Liquid-assisted grinding, a form of mechanochemistry, was used to synthesize porphyrin paddle-wheel frameworks (PPFs). Three different crystalline phases were targeted in order to test the viability of this method on this class of materials and observe any difference compared to traditional solvothermal synthesis. X-ray diffraction was used to confirm the formation of each PPF phase. We found that mechanochemistry was indeed successful to sustainably synthesize PPFs. Additionally, we observed a significant difference in phase preference between the traditional solvothermal synthesis and liquid assisted grinding methods.

Phan, Anh; Jensen, Joseph (Utah Valley University)
Faculty Advisor: Jensen, Joseph (Utah Valley University, Physics)

We have measured the Surface Brightness Fluctuation (SBF) distances to 12 galaxies. SBF is usually used to measure distances to giant elliptical galaxies that have uniform ages and composition. On the other hand, galaxies that are more disk-shaped potentially have a range of ages, they may have an SBF and color gradient. Elliptical masks that match the shapes of disk galaxies can give a more accurate SBF and color gradient than circular masks. The purpose of this study is to measure the discrepancies between the SBF distances using the two types of masks. For giant elliptical galaxies, the two methods give similar results ($\leq$ 2\%). For disk galaxies, the discrepancies are bigger (up to 6\% difference).

Timothy P. McFadden; Chideraa I. Nwachukwu; Andrew G. Roberts (University of Utah)
Faculty Advisor: Roberts, Andrew (College of Science, Chemistry)

Carbon—nitrogen (C—N) bonds are easy to form relative to carbon—carbon (C—C) bonds due to reliable and predictable reactions. Previous methods to form a C—C bond from a C—N bond require four independent chemical reactions. We report a new method to achieve the desired transformation in one flask. Optimization of this method is ongoing; ultimately, we hope to define a new strategy for accessing future C—C bonds with C—N bonds.

Gee, Joshua; Clark, Daniel (Weber State University)
Faculty Advisor: Clark, Daniel (Weber State University, Microbiology)

Naegleria fowleri is a fatal human pathogenic free-living amoeba capable of infecting the human central nervous system. The causative agent of an extremely rare and fatal infection known as primary amoebic meningoencephalitis. N.fowleri is dangerously lethal in the fact that it rapidly deteriorates the brain and is most often diagnosed at death. It is believed that N.fowleri CD59-like complement regulatory protein is important in the infection process. The function of this protein has not been made clear, but is thought to play a protective role in resistance to lytic cell death caused by complement. Consequence of this function results in the amoeba becoming camouflaged by the host's native immune system. Inhibition of this protein is a novel step toward treatment of infection. An established and successful approach to treating infectious organisms is to use antibodies that target and interrupt the function of outer membrane proteins involved in the infection process.The goal of this research is to evaluate the hypothesis that human anti-CD59 antibodies can neutralize the amoeba's CD59-like protein in the presence of complement, which would normally lyse the cells. To do this, we established an experimental infection model using human cells (HeLa cervical cancer cells) grown to confluence in a monolayer, which are susceptible to infection by N. fowleri. This model mimics the natural infection of N. fowleri, and will provide a greater understanding of its pathogenesis.

Johnston, Olivia; Preston, Kolten; Hoyt, Tyson; Owens May, April; Bentley, Kaden; Gunnerson, Shane; Johnson, Alex; Parr, McKenna; Reeves, Duncan; Parry, Whitney; Rawson, Clayton; Hart, Vern (Utah Valley University)
Faculty Advisor: Hart, Vern (Science, Physics)

Recent efforts in early cancer detection require identifying the disease at a cellular level, by distinguishing cancer cells from healthy cells at low concentrations (<0.1%). Cancerous cells typically have larger nuclei than healthy cells and can be distinguished using a variety of optical techniques, however, this process is complicated when the fraction of malignant cells is extremely low. As such, high-precision detection requires highly accurate measurements of cell confluence and the ratio of healthy to cancerous cells. Techniques such as machine learning and Fourier analysis have been used to auto-segment cells in microscopy images. However, these techniques often lack a ground truth standard to validate the segmentation results. We present a methodology for producing agarose tissue phantoms embedded with mixed polystyrene microbeads of varying diameters. These phantoms were imaged using a 2D translational stage and a microscope camera, collecting hundreds of images that were input to an artificially intelligent neural network for training and classification. The ability of this binary classifier to identify and quantify micro-beads in the images was assessed by comparing the automated results to manual counts, producing accuracies above 90% for bead sizes ranging from 50-200 microns. Auto-segmentation results will also be presented for mixtures of micro-beads and U-87 (glioblastoma) cancer cells, which differ in shape and morphology from the beads but whose boundaries are significantly less defined. The ability to accurately segment two different cell types in vitro would be highly beneficial for future cellular imaging studies.