2015 Abstracts

Michaelle Cadet, Utah Valley University Physical Sciences Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women in the United States. Tumor angiogenesis and its inhibition is an important aspect of oncology and the treatment of cancer. High-frequency ultrasound (10-100 MHz) is particularly sensitive to small vascular structures that are close in size to the ultrasound wavelength (15-150 _m). The ability to rapidly determine the degree of vascularization in small animals in vivo would provide a useful characterization tool for breast cancer studies. The objective of this study was to determine if direct ultrasonic measurements in the 10-100 MHz range could be used as a vascularization assay for breast tumors and other tissues. To accomplish this, six mice from the Huntsman Cancer Institute (Salt Lake City, Utah) with grafted breast cancer tumors (three control and three treated with an angiogenesis inhibitor called Avastin) were tested in vivo using through-transmission ultrasonic measurements. A second study was also performed at the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Experimental and Clinical Traumatology (Vienna, Austria), where the femoral artery in one hind leg of each of sixteen mice was ligated and tested over the time period of eight days. Eight of the ligated limbs were treated with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) while the remaining eight ligated limbs were allowed to grow ischemic. The unligated limbs were controls. Results from the Huntsman Cancer Institute study indicated that breast tumors in Avastin-treated mice showed higher ultrasound velocities than control tumors. This can be ascribed to the vasculature in the nontreated tumors creating greater wave scattering in the tissue, thus decreasing the velocity. Results from the Boltzmann Institute study indicated that in mice with ligated femoral arteries, ultrasonic signals from ischemic limbs displayed a decrease in wave velocity over the test period as compared to the VEGF-treated limbs. However, both the ischemic and VEGF-treated limbs showed decreases in ultrasonic attenuation during the entire test period. Results from Avastin-treated mouse tumors and mouse limbs with ligated femoral arteries revealed that high-frequency ultrasound holds potential for measuring angiogenesis in vivo.

Monika Miller, Weber State University Physical Sciences Nutritionally important minerals are more readily absorbed by living systems when they are combined with organic acids. These combined metal-organic acid complexes are called chelate metals or chelates. The synthetic processes utilized to prepare these mineral chelates adds significant cost to the final product. Occasionally, manufactures sell cheaper dry blends of unreacted minerals and organic acids to gain an unfair competitive advantage in the market place. There are few if any reliable methods for reliable measurement of the extent of chelation between metals and organic acids. We report our successful application of Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) for the quantitative determination of chelation in solid samples of mineral chelates.

Jennifer Melvin and Wendy Schatzberg, Dixie State University Physical Sciences The general chemistry laboratory can be a dangerous place, and the possible danger is amplified by the fact that general chemistry is frequently a student’s first chemistry laboratory experience. College students come from a variety of backgrounds with only some having had chemistry in high school, and therefore many students will not know beforehand what kind of precautions to take or what kind of action to take in case of an accident in the lab. Safety information is given briefly at the beginning of the semester, but the efficacy of this is uncertain. An online survey was conducted to gauge first- and second-semester general chemistry students’ knowledge about chemistry laboratory safety and the data gathered was analyzed. This survey was conducted at two secondary schools in two different countries. Statistical analysis will be presented. Results will allow discernment of misconceptions held by students over two semesters and between countries, and conclusions can be made about the effectiveness of current laboratory safety instruction methods.

Brett Barton, Dixie State University Physical Sciences Dissolution using ionic liquids has been shown to be an efficient analytical method of dissolving keratin fibers. Using wool and hoof material from livestock, chloride-based ionic liquids were used to break down the hydrogen bonds important for keratin structure, making the extraction of constituent material much easier. Efficient methods of extraction allow for small samples to be analyzed while still providing high yields; efficient dissolution of keratin in a small sample size will be utilized to prevent any harmful effects on the animals. Ionic liquids are nondestructive solvents which allow for the safe extraction of organic substances. Denaturing keratin would help in the process of identifying any constituent radioactive materials. Efficient identification of radioactive material in livestock is crucial for maintaining health and quality of life.

Tim Beach, Utah State University Physical Sciences Successful management of the arid West requires a basic knowledge of available water resources, withdrawals, and existing management efforts. Utah, the second driest state in the country, is continuing its efforts to restore impaired water systems and teach the next generation to conserve water. Because of a fast-growing population, the diversity of Utah’s landscape, and strict regulations that govern water throughout the state, understanding the region’s current water condition can be difficult. Historically, the majority of this information has been stored in databases, represented by only numbers and statistics. In an effort to better conceptualize this data and increase the spatial understanding of Utah’s water, a set of maps have been produced. These maps were created using ESRI’s ArcMap software and Adobe Illustrator. Included are major lakes and rivers, average annual precipitation, average annual streamflow, total urban withdrawals per county, total agricultural withdrawals per county, and water management. Viewing visual representations of this information in multiple maps can aid in creating spatial inferences, and raise additional questions regarding aquatic restoration and management throughout the state. This set of maps can also be used to supplement physical science education at all school levels. Future work includes distributing these maps as posters to schools and water managers, as well making it a resource for teachers via websites and fact sheets.

Melinda Hurlbut, Dixie State University Physical Sciences A newly discovered plant fossil locality in the Chinle Formation (Upper Triassic) in Washington County broadens the distribution of known Late Triassic plant fossil localities to include southwestern Utah. Previously reported plant localities in the Chinle Formation are known from southeastern Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and equivalent strata from the Dockum Group in Texas. The majority of the known plant fossil localities are from higher stratigraphic units of the Chinle Formation. However, the new Washington County locality is from the older, basal unit, the Shinarump Member. The plant fossils identified from the new locality include fronds of the fern Phlebopteris sp., fertile leaves of the fern Cynepteris sp., and leaves of the bennettitalean Zamites sp. Undetermined species of conifers are represented by a partial branch and a three- dimensionally preserved cone containing well preserved seeds. The diversity of species found at the Washington County plant fossil locality correlates with other known floral assemblages from the Chinle Formation, suggesting general homogeneity of Chinle Formation floras. These plant fossil assemblages support interpretations of basal Chinle Formation paleoclimates as humid and warm.

Eric Johnson, University of Utah Physical Sciences The ability to reduce O2 in mild conditions holds many important implications such as: use as an economical fuel cell, pharmaceutical synthesis, biomass degradation and conversion of small molecules to fuels. We are building the [M(μ-OH) (oxapyme)M(H2O)]+ molecules and symmetrical counterparts for use in O2 reduction reactions (M = Cobalt, Nickel, Iron). The precursors to the [M(μ-OH)(oxapyme)M(H2O)]+ have been synthesized as follows. 2-[5-(2-Nitro-phnyl)-[1,3,4]oxadiazol- 2-yl]-phenylamine serves as the backbone of the complex, allowing for two distinct ligands to be attached to each side. Initial yields for this synthesis averaged at 6%. To be able to complete the synthesis this needed to be significantly raised. The literature procedure was modified in various ways until new reaction conditions were found that allowed for 40% yield. Other precursors include 2,2’-(1,3,4)Oxadiazole-2,5-diyl-bis-aniline which also serves as a ligand backbone but differs in that it allows for preparation of a symmetrical ligand have been synthesized with a 51% yield. The first ligand Bis-pyridine-2-ylmethyl-amino has been produced with a 60% yield. The second ligand Methyl-pyridine-2-ylmethyl-amino has been synthesized with an approximate yield of 75%. These yields are high enough to finish the synthesis of the ligand and subsequently coordinate the metals. Upon completion, the electrochemical properties of the compounds that differ in the metal composition and the ligand (symmetrical versus asymmetrical) will be determined using studies such as cyclic voltammetry. Once the metal and ligand that are most apt at oxygen reduction is determined, more advanced studies will be undertaken to identify the reaction mechanism and intermediates.

Kyle Marcus, Cami McKellar, Riley Pearce, Shay Beck, and Zenja Draca, Dixie State University Physical Sciences Invasive marine and freshwater species have a detrimental impact on aquatic ecosystems and are easily transferred between bodies of water as a result of unregulated settlement and attachment to commercial and recreational watercraft. This results in infestation of waterways and disruption of native organisms throughout an ecosystem. The quagga mussel (Dreissena rostriformis bugensis) is one example of such invasive species that has called for a focus on cross-contamination prevention. The goal is to use aquatic paint suitable for watercraft that prevents the settlement and/or attachment of various aquatic species such as algae, snails (Physa sp.), anemones (Aiptasia sp.), and quagga mussels. The paint is integrated with newly developed surfactants that act as an inhibitor to the adherence ability of invasive aquatic species. The surfactants are added to provide a barrier between the paint surface and the organisms creating an undesirable surface area for the organisms to attach. This barrier disrupts the specific naturally occurring chemical and physical processes that allow organisms to adhere to surfaces. The most innovative characteristic of the surfactant-based paint is its effectiveness on adherence inhibition without degradation, dissociation, or toxicity to the environment. Preventing adherence of invasive organisms to surfaces could have significant positive effects on the efficiency and cost of operations in marine environments and waterways.

Mattie Jones, Dixie State University Physical Sciences Current techniques for isolating components of samples found at crime scenes by their unique chemical properties are lengthy and often destroy important forensic evidence. New methods aimed at forensic analysis of sensitive, minute samples are critical to the intelligence community. In particular, successful extraction of dyes from materials found at crime scenes will provide innumerable benefits for matching, identifying, and finding origins of these materials and dyes. Ionic liquids possess the necessary chemical properties to ensure efficient extractions while maintaining the forensic signatures of the original materials. Ionic liquids, which are organic salts that are room temperature, provide a versatile solvent to achieve single-component extraction-separation-identification of forensic analytes. Following extraction, successful identification by infrared, absorption, and fluorescence spectroscopy has provided evidence of preserved quality and complete separation of material and dye. This novel approach to forensic analysis is advantageous particularly when sample sizes are extremely limited, but it can be readily scaled to larger applications. Developing a simple and affordable method of achieving specific molecular interactions provides a solution for often unidentifiable evidence in crimes. Harnessing the versatility of ionic liquids in a high-yielding recovery and efficient single-pot methods will enhance forensic abilities for the intelligence community and forensic investigators.

Madeline Parson, Travis Bulloch, and Tyler Argyle, Southern Utah University Physical Sciences Lipid bilayers have many important purposes in living cells. A lipid bilayer forms a barrier which separates the fluid inside the cell from the fluid surrounding the cell. The arrangement of components within cell membranes can be extremely important, particularly in cell communications. For example, when our immune system attacks certain pathogens, it recognizes them by specific proteins in the inner and outer regions. This can be thought of as forming a “bull’s-eye” shape. The ability to generate such patterns in bilayers might see applications in many areas of biology. Our goal is to take an initially un-patterned supported lipid bilayer (model cell membrane) and use magnetic tweezers as a delivery system to generate patterns. We hope to show pattern formation using fluorescent-labeled lipids within our bilayer. In the past, we have used streptavidin and biotinylated lipids with Oregon Green. Currently, we are pursuing a fluorescein/anti-fluorescein system that has been yielding much more promising results. We are currently using a fluorescent microscope to confirm that patterns are forming within the bilayer.

Michael Kutschke and Niccolo Fiorentino University of Utah Measurements of joint angles, moments, and forces can be sensitive to positional changes in the center of a joint. Due to its deep location, the hip joint center (HJC) can be difficult to determine. Regression equations and functional methods use skin markers and are commonly used to measure the HJC, yet introduce sources of error such as bony landmark identification, soft tissue artifact, and system resolution. Additionally, the accuracy of said methods cannot be established in-vivo without a reference standard. The purpose of this study was to implement a dual fluoroscopy (DF) and model-based tracking technique to quantify the subject-specific HJC position in-vivo. This reference standard (DF-HJC) was then compared to the HJC defined by regression equations (CODA) and a functional method (FHJC) using skin markers. Five subjects with normal hip anatomy provided informed consent to participate in this IRB approved study. A gait marker set was applied to the subject’s skin. The subject performed various activities involving the inferior limb while a 10-camera Vicon system measured the position of the skin markers. From these data, the CODA and FHJCs were identified. Simultaneously, the hip was visualized using a DF system, and the DF-HJC was identified using model-based tracking. The DF-HJC was then transformed to the Vicon coordinate system for comparison with the CODA and FHJCs. The average Euclidean distance (and standard deviation) for the five subjects from the DF-HJC was 2.0 (0.6) cm for CODA and 1.3 (0.4) cm for the FHJC. To our knowledge this is the first study to use DF and model-based tracking to measure the in-vivo position of the HJC. This technique affords greater accuracy in determining subject-specific bone geometry and visualization of deep hip anatomy, thus may be considered a reference standard for identifying the HJC.

Nicole Cowan, Utah Valley University Physical Sciences Breast cancer is the second most prevalent cancer among women, affecting one out of eight women in their lifetime. The ability to differentiate between malignant and normal tissues during breast cancer surgery would enable the surgeon to remove all of the cancer from the affected region in the breast, thereby reducing the risk of recurrence and the need for subsequent surgeries. A pilot study conducted at the Huntsman Cancer Institute showed that high-frequency ultrasound (20-80 MHz), and in particular the ultrasonic parameter peak density, was sensitive to breast tissue pathology. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of tissue microstructure on peak density using phantoms that mimic the histology of breast tissue. Phantoms were created from a mixture of distilled water, Knox gelatin, and Metamucil fiber. In order to simulate breast tissue histology and terminal ductal lobular units, polyethylene microspheres were embedded into the phantoms in layers, totaling 4 layers per phantom. The volume percent of polyethylene microspheres was kept constant in each phantom while varying microsphere sizes (58-925 μm diameter). Pitch-catch and pulse-echo measurements were acquired using 50-MHz transducers (Olympus NDT, V358-SU, 50 MHz, 0.635-cm diameter active element), a HF pulsar-receiver (UTEX, UT340), and a 1-GHz digital oscilloscope (Agilent DSOX3104A). Glycerol (Genesis Scientific) was used as a coupling agent between the transducers and the phantoms. Spectra were derived from the data, giving peak density (the number of peaks and valleys in a specified spectral range) and attenuation values. In a previous study, histology- mimicking phantoms were fabricated where the weight percent of polyethylene microspheres was kept constant, but the microsphere diameter was varied. The former study showed a clear trend of higher peak density values for smaller diameters, but no trend for attenuation. In contrast, the phantoms from this study showed no trend in peak density, but a clear trend of higher attenuation values for larger microspheres. The results show that specific changes in tissue microstructure affect the parameters of peak density and attenuation differently. Changes in the number of scatterers and in their size, as in the previous study, affected peak density most significantly. In contrast, changes solely in the size of the scatterers, but not in their number, affected attenuation most significantly. These results are consistent with attenuation results for lobular carcinoma in the pilot study. These results show that peak density and attenuation are complementary parameters, and could be used together to characterize a variety of tissue pathologies

Melissa Warren, Weber State University Physical Sciences Spot tests are commonly utilized as presumptive qualitative tests for detecting chemical substances. Such tests are the basis for detection of illegal drugs or for cleaning validations in manufacturing systems. In this study we evaluate the use of Scott’s reagent and Mandelin reagent for the detection of trace quantities of diphenhydramine (Benadryl). These reagents have been reported to give false positive tests for illegal drugs such as ketamine (cocaine) when diphenhydramine is present. Our studies were focused on enhancing the detection limits of these reagents and their application of swab tests for diphenhydramine. We report the limits of detection and swab techniques that enhance selectivity and sensitivity for this analyte.

Sergio Arellano, Snow College Mathematical Sciences Why is music so pleasant to? In Western music, we have used what is called the “tempered scale” for centuries, and even though it has gone through changes, it is still largely based around the mathematical principles that Pythagoras created two thousand years ago. Is it possible that the explanation to this phenomenon has to do with the mathematical basis of music, which is unconsciously perceived by the brain? The human brain is known for detecting the underlying mathematical patterns present in many non-music related disciplines, such as visual arts. Independent of the music world, there is a proportion called the Golden Ratio or Phi. It is found in art and geometry, because human eyes tend to find that this proportion produces beauty. This is not a coincidence; this proportion is found everywhere around us, especially in nature. With this in mind, it makes sense to search for the Golden Ratio in the tempered scale to explain the mind’s intuitive appreciation of music. This research discovered the surprising fact that there is a Phi relationship between the first and third degree of the major scale, in terms of the frequency of sounds. The relationship is this: the sum of the frequencies of the notes of the minor III chord divided by the sum of the frequencies of the major I chord in any given major key, tends to be Phi. Another very surprising result was the importance of the number 24 in the frequencies of the major scale. These two particularities help to shed light on why human ears have an untaught comprehension of music; the underlying perception of mathematical relationships by the mind are related to the natural appreciation of it.

Jason Adams, Nathan Jewkes and Tyrell Vance, Southern Utah University Mathematical Sciences We will study the divisibility of p^(n)-1 where p is a prime number larger than 5 and n is a positive integer. We will generalize the result by considering the case where n is odd and two cases where n is even. We show that when n=2^(k), k an integer greater than 1, 2^(k+2)∙3∙5 is a factor of p^(n)-1. We also show that when n=2^(m)∙l for m a positive integer greater than 1 and l an odd positive integer greater than 1, 2^(m+2)∙3∙5 is a factor of p^(n)-1.

Amy Gifford and Brennon Bauer, Southern Utah University Mathematical Sciences Mutualism is the way two organisms of different species exist in a relationship in which each individual benefits from the activity of the other. We study a mathematical model of mutualism. The stability of the steady state solutions of this system will be analyzed. Also, we give some numerical experiments that verify the theoretical results for those steady solutions.

Christopher Vander Wilt and Daniel Gulbrandsen Utah Valley University Let nP denote the polytope obtained by expanding the convex integral polytope P⊂R^d by a factor of n in each dimension. Ehrhart [1] proved that the number of lattice (integer) points contained in nP is a rational polynomial of degree d in n. What happens if the polytope is expanded by not necessarily the same factor in each dimension? In this talk a partial answer to this question will be provided, using powers of n as different factors to expand the polytope. It will be shown that the number of lattice points contained in the polytope formed by expanding P by multiplying each vertex coordinate by such a factor is a quasi-polynomial in n. Quasi-polynomials are a generalization of polynomials, where the coefficients of the quasi-polynomials are periodic functions with integral period. Furthermore, particular cases where the number of such lattice points is a polynomial will be presented. In addition, the period of these quasi-polynomials as well as the Law of Reciprocity will be addressed. At the end, future work will be discussed. [1] E. Ehrhart, “Sur les Poly`edres Rationnels Homoth ´etiques `a n Dimensions,” C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 254 (1962)

Laine Anderson, Utah State University Life Sciences Plague is maintained in complex epizootic and enzootic transmission cycles involving rodents and their fleas. Ground squirrels, prairie dogs, woodrats and their associated fleas have been identified as essential for bacterial maintenance. Oropsylla montana is of major interest due to the fact that it is distributed throughout the western U.S. where most human plague cases occur. Evidence suggests this species is the primary vector of plague to humans. Data on the genetic variation within and among populations of potential vectors of Yersinia pestis, including O. montana, is very limited. O. montana fleas were previously collected from 35 geographically distinct field sites from Colorado and New Mexico on the east, to California and Oregon on the west. Genomic DNA was extracted and mitochondrial and nuclear genetic data was sequenced to estimate phylogenetic relationships. The data collected from these studies will expand our knowledge of natural O. montana populations. We anticipate the genetic data collected from these flea populations will provide information that will assist with understanding human plague risk. Such information will, in turn, provide potentially significant insights into the ecology and epidemiology of plague in this region and is likely to suggest new strategies for monitoring and preventing this disease.

Kyle Kener, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Diabetes is characterized by the inability to maintain a normal blood glucose level caused by decreased insulin due to β-cell loss, or decreased insulin sensitivity in the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue. While β-cell death is a hallmark of T1D, β-cells are also destroyed as T2D progresses. Death of β-cells is eventually a hallmark of both forms of diabetes. This results in decreased functional β-cell mass, which is defined by the ability to secrete insulin while maintaining β-cell number through proliferation or decreased apoptosis. To resolve the decreased β-cell level, much research is being done regarding β-cell proliferation to increase pancreatic β-cell mass. However, another important step in this process is protecting β-cells from apoptotic mediated β-cell death. The β-cell transcription factor Nkx6.1 is sufficient to induce β-cell proliferation and increase protection against apoptotic insults. The Nkx6.1 target gene VGF is critical for protection against apoptosis. Our data demonstrates that Nkx6.1 upregulates expression of c-Fos. Furthermore, we show that c- Fos is sufficient to induce expression of VGF. In addition, our data demonstrates that expression of c-Fos is sufficient to protect β-cells from apoptotic insults. Our data demonstrates that c-Fos is the link between the Nkx6.1 and VGF, and that it’s expression is sufficient to protect rat pancreatic β-cells from apoptosis.

Brent Wright, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Diabetes is one of the leading causes of death among Americans and is a major health concern worldwide. Nearly one in four Americans aged 65 or older are diabetic. Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes both result in reduced functional β-cell mass, which regulates the storage and secretion of insulin. Increased functional β-cell mass could essentially cure diabetes. We have shown that Nkx6.1 overexpression induces proliferation of 2-month-old primary rat β-cells but fails to induce replication of 8-month-old primary β-cells, as measured by 3H- thymidine incorporation is age-dependent. Cell cycle activator and inhibitor mRNA levels were measured in young and aged untreated islets and islets transduced with AdCMV-BGal or AdCMV-Nkx6.1. This data demonstrated a significant increase in mRNA expression of cell cycle inhibitors p21 and p57 of the CIP/KIP family in young islets transduced with Nkx6.1. However, p21 and p57 mRNA showed no significant increase in aged islets. Cdk2 and cyclin E1 mRNA expression showed a similar trend for young and aged islets. The increased expression of Cdk2, a necessary factor for transition from G1 to S phase, could provide possible explanation for increased proliferation in young islets. Fluctuating mRNA levels of key cell cycle components in aged islets, provides a possible explanation for the decreased effectiveness of Nkx6.1 in inducing proliferation in aged islets.

Madalynne Fedoruk and Darian Carey, Dixie State University Life Sciences For at least three decades, infection with chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) has been a major cause of population decline in amphibians worldwide. This pathogen has been found in canyon tree frogs (Hyla arenicolor) in Zion National Park; previous studies suggested that population sizes decreased in frogs infected with the fungus; but our studies indicated that these frogs were resistant. We hypothesized that chytrid infection in the Zion Canyon tree frogs were not lethal, but other environmental factors caused populations to fluctuate. Canyon tree frogs were captured and swabbed in each of nine canyons in and around Zion National Park during the summer of 2014, and total frog populations were counted in each study canyon. The swabs were analyzed for the presence of chytrid DNA, and infection rates and population sizes were compared with data from 2011-2013. We found that the presence or absence of chytrid had no influence on population size in a particular canyon; population sizes were more dependent on precipitation. The Zion canyon tree frogs resist this normally lethal disease; how they evade it will be the goal of future studies.

Aimee Newsham, Dixie State University Life Sciences Millions of people are infected yearly with resistant pathogens, including MRSA (methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus), a biofilm-forming pathogen that is often transferred to patients from contaminated surfaces. Therefore, improved methods to destroy biofilm- encapsulated pathogens or to prevent their initial formation are required. This research is focused on the development of a safe treatment against biofilms by integrating organic salts, or ionic liquids (ILs), into different surfaces. Textiles were integrated with ILs to prevent formation of biofilms/bacterial growth, and were also treated post-exposure to determine if the biofilms could be destroyed post-contamination. Effectiveness of newly designed ILs were tested via inhibition zone studies on LB agar plates, and post-treatment samples were analyzed via scanning electron microscopy for presence of bacteria. The bacteria tested included Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Escherichia coli. These microbes are similar to MRSA in that they form biofilms comprised of extracellular proteins, DNA and polysaccharides. Bacterial colonies encapsulate themselves with biofilms to provide protection from threats, including antibacterial drugs. By integrating ionic liquids into textiles, formation can be prevented by IL solvation and sequestering of the extracellular biofilm components, including the proteins and DNA. This research could have tremendous implications regarding defeating bacteria that are resistant to existing treatments due to biofilm encapsulation. Additionally, the results could lead to new antimicrobial textiles and new approaches to prevent adherence and growth resistant biofilm-encapsulated pathogens.

Breanna Torgersen, Hailey Seaver, Abigail Gunn, Siena Davis, and Jim Johnston, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Exposure to radon gas (222Rn) is the second leading cause of lung cancer in the U.S. Because 222Rn is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas, it must be tested for to recognize its existence in a home. Studies show that many homeowners know little about radon, and do not test their homes as recommended. This study was undertaken to measure Utah County residents’ knowledge about radon, and to understand factors associated with radon testing. Utah County residents (N = 200) are currently being surveyed as they exit the vital records office at the Utah County Health Department (UCHD). Subjects complete a 51-item survey measuring demographics, radon knowledge, and social cognitive theory-based constructs related to radon testing. Preliminary data (n = 65) shows subjects’ mean radon knowledge score was 1.68 (33%, SD = 26.24%) on a 5-item test. There was a significant relationship between radon testing and self-efficacy (OR 1.76, 95% CI: 1.2–2.6, p = 0.007). Subjects with higher self-efficacy for radon testing were more likely to report that they had tested their home at least once. Data collection is still underway on this study, and all results reported here are preliminary.

Jeff Mecham, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Breast cancer is diagnosed in one of every eight American women. But, a safe, effective treatment for cancer has yet to be developed. Resveratrol, a naturally occurring phenol found in the skin of grapes, shows promise to be a powerful but safe chemotherapeutic in a sea of otherwise damaging and toxic treatments. However, the mechanisms by which resveratrol operates are yet to be fully understood. Our project focuses on the mechanisms by which resveratrol induces cell death in breast cancer cells. We will focus on the mechanisms of the p53 pathway. The protein p53 operates as an internal housekeeper of the cell. When DNA is damaged, p53 assesses the damage and can cause cell death when needed to prevent the spread and replication of the damaged cells. Cancer cells often decrease the amount of p53, allowing them to replicate without hindrance. Cancer cells treated with resveratrol show an increase of the amount of intracellular p53 restoring the cells’ ability to induce cell death. Our project focuses on two apparent mechanisms by which this increase occurs: calcium signaling and the decrease of ubiquitination of P53. Ubiquitin is a protein used to mark other proteins for degradation. Other papers and studies have shown that resveratrol inhibits key players in the process of ubiquitinizing p53. We will focus on resveratrol’s effect on both the ubiquitinizing and deubiquitinizing machinery, including G3BP1, USP10, and MDM2. A better understanding of the mechanisms by which resveratrol leads to the targeted death of cancer cells is an important step towards better cancer treatments.

Jordan Tingey, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Diabetes is a serious condition that is increasing worldwide. Diabetes is characterized by lost β-cell mass and uncontrolled blood glucose levels. Pancreatic islet transplantation could be used to cure people with diabetes, however the lack of islets is a major obstacle to its use. If we could understand how to increase β-cell proliferation and glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) then we could increase success in pancreatic islet transplants. Nkx6.1 induces β-cell proliferation. Nkx6.1 mediated proliferation is dependent on expression of Nr4a1 and Nr4a3. Nr4a1 and Nr4a3 are orphan nuclear receptors. It is currently unknown what ligand induces their activation. Previous reports have shown that free fatty acids induces expression of Nr4a1 and Nr4a3 in muscle, liver and adipose tissue. We show that culture of our INS-1 832/3 β -cell line in the presence of 0.2 mM palmitate induces expression of Nr4a nuclear receptors. Furthermore, culture with 0.2 mM palmitate results in increased β -cell proliferation. Finally, using INS-1 cells cultured with palmitate, and INS-1 cells deficient for either Nr4a1 or Nr4a3 we demonstrate the effect on mitochondrial respiration. Our data demonstrate that free fatty acids that are present during diabetes may induces expression and enhance activation of the Nr4a nuclear receptors, thus resulting in enhanced β -cell proliferation.

Alex Bischoff, Connor Dodge, Sarah Livingston, Sterling Rosqvist, Tomonori Baba, Kyle Larsen,

Alysa Edwards, University of Utah Life Sciences Percutaneous devices (PDs) constitute foreign materials that penetrate through the protective skin barrier to provide connection between internal and external environments. It has been previously shown that the periprosthetic tissue at the PD-skin interface is under a continuous state of wound healing, which often results in epidermal downgrowth. This continuous downgrowth is detrimental to the long-term survival of these devices. To date, there are no effective methodologies available to either prevent or quantify the degree of epidermal downgrowth indicating a need to find effective markers to document the healing response around these devices. In this study, periprosthetic tissues from a previous pig- back study were subjected to two different evaluations: (1) standard histology (HandE) and (2) immunohistochemical staining (IHC). Healing responses around PDs made with different material types were examined using cytokeratin 6 and collagen 4 to determine the degree of wound healing and granulation tissue maturity. Varying exposure time and concentration of stains, staining procedures were optimized. The interfacial tissues were then analyzed using either a photo or a confocal microscope. Preliminary data (Figure 1) indicated that there were noticeable differences in the periprosthetic regions between the material types used. The IHC data confirmed that the periprosthetic tissue is a hyper cellular region with a high density of blood vessels (collagen 4) and migrating keratinocytes. This data further confirmed the morphological differences observed between implant types using standard histology. Continued analysis will quantify the amount of collagen 4 within the periprosthetic tissue using imageJ software. Semi-quantitative data from each implant type will then be compared to predict biocompatibility. This research has demonstrated that IHC staining could be a potential tool for understanding the healing cascades around the percutaneous device.

Derek Munday, University of Utah Life Sciences Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are more prevalent in individuals with diet-induced obesity (DIO) and type two diabetes (T2DM). Examples of CVD include blood vessel dysfunction and systemic hypertension. Both of these pathologies are associated with a reduced ability of the inner lining of the blood vessel (the endothelium) to release a substance (nitric oxide) that causes the blood vessel to dilate. At present the mechanism whereby T2DM and DIO decrease the function of the enzyme (nitric oxide synthase; NOS) responsible for nitric oxide synthesis and release is unknown. Determining this mechanism is the current focus of our laboratory. Earlier we reported that the sphingolipid ceramide is elevated in cell models of lipotoxicity and in mice with DIO. Most recently in endothelial cells we showed that ceramide causes protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) to bind directly with NOS which disrupts the interactions among proteins that are necessary for optimal NOS function. My overall project was concerned with determining whether this mechanism is operational in mice with DIO. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that PP2A inhibition would preserve vascular protein- protein interactions required for optimal NOS enzyme function to an extent that arterial dysfunction and hypertension would not occur. Mice consumed a control (CON) or high fat (HF) diet for 12 weeks. During the last 2 weeks, cohorts of mice from each group were injected (IP) with saline (vehicle control) or the PP2A inhibitor LB1 (1.0 mg/kg/day). We observed that interactions among proteins required for optimal NOS enzyme function were disrupted in arteries from mice with DIO treated with saline but not with LB1. Furthermore, arterial dysfunction and hypertension existed in mice with DIO that received saline but not LB1. These results strongly suggest that PP2A activation contributes importantly to arterial dysfunction that exists in a pre-clinical model of DIO.

Scott Frodsham, Brigham Young University Life Sciences The goal of this study is to better understand if the genetic variants that strongly correlate with an increased risk of developing multiple sclerosis (MS) also increase the risk of developing diseases that commonly co-occur with MS. This relationship can be determined by comparing genetic data of patients diagnosed exclusively with MS to the genetic data of patients diagnosed with both MS and one of its comorbid diseases. Many electronic medical records (EMR) collected at medical institutions are made available for research purposes. The EMRs of individuals contained in the database that will be used for this study are linked to corresponding genetic information. Data extraction via computer algorithm will be executed to identify patients who, because of their respective diagnoses, will provide meaningful data for analysis. The case group for individuals diagnosed with just MS and have available genetic information consists of 1003 individuals. Applying a basic algorithm (ICD-9 billing codes) to this group has shown preliminary data on patients with MS and one other comorbidity as follows: Hypertension, 192 patients; anxiety, 17 patients; hypothyroidism, 84 patients; Type 1 diabetes, 24 patients; inflammatory bowel disease, 12 patients; migraine, 116 patients; restless leg syndrome, 14 patients; rheumatoid arthritis, 28 patients. The algorithms will be modified to find and include more patients for analysis. We will enhance patient identification by including medications and text keyword searches of clinical notes in the search. Genetic analysis will be performed on the final dataset.

Brooke Linney, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Recombinant DNA technology has become one of the most critical fields of research relating to biotechnology. Recombinant DNA can be used to obtain certain proteins or examine the effects of genes that we engineer, with many applications in medical research. As part of our lab’s use for recombinant DNA, we create a gene sequence to code for a certain protein, and then use heat-shocking transformation to stimulate Escherichia coli bacterial cells to incorporate the mutated DNA from the surrounding solution. As the bacterial cells then grow, they replicate the mutated plasmid that we introduced. This DNA can later be extracted from the bacterial cells and used for further synthesis, usually protein synthesis in our lab. The process of transforming bacterial cells with mutated DNA is directly affected by plasmid size. Transformation efficiency is maximized with smaller plasmids. One of the DNA plasmids we use to introduce mutations is the pET9a vector. This plasmid is a sequence of 4,341 base pairs, but by reducing the length of the plasmid, we can increase transformation efficiency. By restricting the size of the pET9a vector, we will also be able to introduce larger foreign DNA sequences than we would with the original pET9a vector. This presentation will explore the different methods of reducing sequence length to optimize the pET9a vector, mainly focusing on site-directed mutagenesis coupled with the use of restriction enzymes.

Robert Erickson, Utah Valley University Life Sciences Although the insect fauna of the Colorado Plateau region are somewhat well known, our specific understanding of the arthropod biodiversity in Capitol Reef National Park has been sparse. Objective: From the multiple insect surveys conducted in Capitol Reef National Park we intend to catalog the arthropod biodiversity into a species list. Methods: In addition to the previous collecting trips, we carried out collection efforts this past summer (2014). We used the Utah Valley University Capitol Reef Field Station as our home base. General insect collecting efforts were conducted around the field station and the nearby Pleasant Creek, near the public campgrounds, along trails, and in several other locations in the southern portion of the park. Additionally, we performed night collecting with a mercury vapor lamp trap on the nights we were in the park and utilized stationary malaise and aquatic larvae traps. The collected specimens were curated using methods of pinning, spreading, labeling, identifying, photographing, and organizing the insects. Results: The collections contributed to an increased understanding of the parks insect diversity and resulted in a curated natural history museum collection. A species list will be made available for the records of Capitol Reef National Park. More than 3000 specimens have been collected within the park. Furthermore, a booklet of the common insects for the park is in the process of being created in order to serve as an educational tool for visitors to the park and field station.

Jenny Pattison, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Sensory protein kinases are essential in the phosphorylation of many protein substrates, allowing them to control several metabolic functions and maintain cellular homeostasis. PAS kinase is a sensory protein kinase that is highly conserved and plays a crucial role in glucose homeostasis, however little is known about the molecular mechanisms behind its function. UGP1 is the only well-characterized substrate of PAS kinase, and its phosphorylation diverts glucose away from storage and towards cell wall biosynthesis. We have recently discovered another key substrate of PAS kinase that affects glucose metabolism in the cell, Centromere binding factor 1 (Cbf1). Cbf1 regulates genes involved in respiration, and we have shown that the phosphorylation of Cbf1 by PAS kinase inhibits Cbf1, decreasing respiration in yeast cells. We hypothesize that this is due to a decrease in mitochondrial mass in cbf1 deficient yeast. Further characterizing the effects of PAS kinase on Cbf1 will give further insight into how cells regulate their central metabolic functions, including respiration.

Chase Barker, Utah Valley University Life Sciences Central Research Question:

Stephan Maman and Holden Wagstaff, Southern Utah University Life Sciences Most plant species produce chemical compounds called secondary metabolites that enhance fitness in a variety of ways. Many of these compounds are also physiologically active in vertebrates and have widespread medicinal uses. The most ubiquitous secondary metabolites are the terpenoids, many of which cause vasodilation of the aorta and mesenteric arteries. In this study, we examined the vasoactive effects of the essential oil of Umbellularia californica, which contains the terpenoid umbellulone. Oil obtained via steam distillation using aerial portions of U. californica was applied directly to cutaneous arterioles of frogs. Arteriole diameter was monitored both before and after oil application by video microscopy. Within seconds of application, the oil caused significant vasoconstriction that persisted until the oil was washed off. Our control, medical grade sesame oil, caused no observable effects when applied using the same protocols. These results are opposite to the vasodilatory effects of terpenoids on aortic rings and mesenteric arteries. This suggests that the vasoactive effects of umbellulone are different from other terpenoids, that the vasoactive effects of terpenoids differ depending on blood vessel type, or that application of the complete essential oil affects vasculature differently than application of the isolated terpenoid.

Kylynn Parker, University of Utah Life Sciences Red Butte Canyon (RBC) is a Research Natural Area administered by the US Forest Service in Salt Lake City, Utah. RBC is an undisturbed area and a haven for all types of birds. Most of the avian species found in this area are migratory, and either pass through or breed in the area. The overall aim of this project is to determine if there have been any notable changes in populations of species in the area over the past 22 years. The research question that is covered in this summary are the following: has the density and relative abundance of the top five most commonly detected avian species in Red Butte Canyon notably changed through time in Transect 1? Data was collected by Mark Leppert, PhD and Sherwood Casjens, PhD of the University of Utah. They recorded the number and species of birds that were both seen and heard in 10 different transects within RBC over the past 22 years (1991-2013) and 457 survey days. In 2013 and 2014, I compiled and entered all of the data into a database with the guidance of the researchers. For analysis, I focused on the five most commonly detected species in Transect 1. These species are Black-Capped Chickadee (Poecile atricapilla), Warbling Vireo (Vireo gilvus), Yellow Warbler (Dendroica petechia), American Robin (Turdus migratorius), and Lazuli Bunting (Passerina amoena). Detection trends were found by graphing the number of individual birds seen or heard in Transect 1 over the days since surveys began in 1991 and statistical evidence was found showing significant changes in species population size of these five most commonly detected species, especially in the case of the American Robin which exhibits a decline in detections in recent years.

Michael Packer, Utah Valley University Life Sciences Dipsosaurus dorsalis is a desert dwelling iguana species geographically distributed throughout the south-western United States, northern Mexico, and the Baja Peninsula. Throughout the Baja Peninsula, multiple species of herpetofauna exhibit a distinct north-south division, both morphologically and genetically, with no presence of any physical barriers. The goal of this study was to examine how the genetic structure of D. dorsalis has been influenced by past geological events, and whether this species exhibits a similar north-south division on the Baja peninsula. Additionally, this study aimed to see if the current taxonomy of Dipsosaurus is reflective of the evolutionary relationships across its entire geographic range. 100 tissue samples of D. dorsalis were collected across the species geographic range. DNA extraction from collected tissue samples and sequencing of nuclear loci MLH3 (~900bp), NT3 (489bp), as well as mitochondrial loci ND4 (~900bp) were performed to examine the distribution of genetic variation in D. dorsalis. The collected data was then used to construct phylogenetic trees for each locus, comparing individuals of Dipsosaurus to the geologic history of its geographic distribution. Although shallow, a maximum likelihood tree of the ND4 mitochondrial gene shows the phylogeographic separation of three distinct clades. The results do not support the designation of Dipsosaurus catalinensis as currently defined.

Daniel Barnett, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Approximately one-third of US adults have metabolic disease, increasing their risk for diabetes, cancers and neurodegenerative disease (www.ADA.org). At the heart of these diseases are imbalances in the cellular redox state. The cofactor NAD(P), commonly known as niacin, is required for over 300 essential reactions in the cell and is largely responsible for the cellular redox state. NAD kinase regulates the NAD to NADP ratio, an important ratio for controlling cellular redox state and central metabolism. Herein we provide evidence that PAS kinase, a nutrient sensing kinase required for glucose homeostasis, phosphorylates NAD kinase. We are currently investigating the effect of this phosphorylation on the function of NAD kinase both in vitro and in vivo by measuring NAD kinase activity and associated phenotypes. This research will increase our understanding of how cells regulate central metabolism. In addition, because PAS kinase is a nonessential protein, it may prove to be an invaluable treatment target for regulating NAD(P) levels and controlling cellular redox state. This may lead to therapeutic targets for cancer and metabolic diseases such as diabetes.

Amanda Hobson, Carrie Draney, Andrew Stratford, Thomas Becker, Danhong Lu, Michelle Arlotto,

Brent Knoblauch and Marty Larsen, Dixie State University Life Sciences Chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) is one of the major hypothesized theories behind global amphibian decline. Canyon Tree frogs (Hyla arenicolor) found in Zion National Park have been found to contain infected individuals, however population sizes have grown despite infection with the usually deadly fungus. The present study sought to demonstrate a correlation between skin temperatures and fungal proliferation, and investigated what enabled Hyla arenicolor to survive and reproduce with chytrid present. Ten frogs were sampled with sterile swabs from each of seven different study areas found in Zion National Park. Along with each swab a temperature was taken via infrared thermometer and recorded. DNA was also extracted from the swabs, and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis- specific primers were used in a touchdown PCR protocol to determine infection rates. Swabs from specimens with higher temperatures were expected to display lower instances of infection. This would establish for the first time a clear demonstration that high skin temperatures were destroying the fungus in infected individuals in the wild.

Stephanie Bartlett, Utah Valley University Life Sciences Our project investigates the phylogenetic relationships of the superfamily Ephemeroidea + Behningiidae. Found in waters worldwide, burrowing families are unique in that they have mandibular tusks that allow them to tunnel in the silt or gravel of riverbeds. Surprisingly, even without the mandibular tusks necessary for tunnel construction, the Behningiidae family is still found within these burrows as nymphs. Because the Behningiidae don’t have tusks, morphological research has lead to a phylogenetic classification of this family that our genomic investigation ultimately disputes. To begin this investigation, mayfly specimens were collected worldwide and prepared for DNA extraction. For each specimen genes were amplified via polymerase chain reaction and visualized on an agarose gel, before being sequenced and analyzed. The specific genes targeted for this analysis include; 12s mitochondrial rDNA, 16s mitochondrial rDNA, 18s nuclear rDNA, 28s nuclear rDNA, H3 nuclear protein coding, and CO1 mitochondrial protein coding. Datasets were supplemented with sequences acquired from Genbank. The ingroup consisted of approximately 30 samples. Phylogenetic relationships were estimated using Maximum Parsimony, Maximum Likelihood, and Baysian methods. We constructed phylogenetic relationships of burrowing mayflies using molecular DNA data analysis, when compared to morphological analysis we identified some important classification differences. As a result of our findings, we propose an alternative explanation for the evolution of mandibular tusks in burrowing mayflies (Ephemeroptera). The data support that burrowing mayflies first evolved tusks. Within the family Behningiidae, tusks were lost, while the burrowing lifestyle (i.e., living in a burrow to filter feed) was retained. This study represents the largest analysis to date for these insects and strongly supports the evolutionary trend of a gain and a loss of mandibular tusks during their evolution.

Jacob Welch, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Learning and memory occur due to adaptive brain changes in response to our environment. These changes are mediated by synaptic plasticity, particularly within the hippocampus. Plasticity can either strengthen or weaken synapses, known as long-term potentiation (LTP) or long-term depression (LTD) respectively. While many forms of plasticity are NMDA-dependent, recently endocannabinoids were identified to mediate several new forms of hippocampal synaptic plasticity through the CB1 and TRPV1 receptors. However, research has demonstrated a non-CB1/TRPV1-dependent endocannabinoid synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. Several potential candidate receptors that bind the endocannabinoid anandamide have been identified. These are among the orphan G-protein coupled receptors (GPRs) whose distribution in the brain and/or function is less well known. GPR55 is of particular interest as it activates second messenger systems. Using quantitative RT-PCR, electrophysiological and memory behavioral tasks we examined hippocampal GPR55 expression and function. GPR55 is expressed in hippocampus of both rats and mice. Cellular expression is currently being examined and appears to be rare in interneurons and more likely expressed by pyramidal cells. Interestingly, application of the GPR55 agonist LPI (2 μM) to wild-type mice demonstrates a significant enhancement of LTP in brain slices. This LPI effect was not noted in GPR55 knock-out (KO) mice, which exhibit significantly (p < 0.05) smaller LTP (146%) than wildtype (WT) (181%). GPR55 also appears to increase release probability (Sylantyev et al., PNAS, 2013), denoting a presynaptic role. Paired-pulse ratios are now being analyzed between GPR55 KO and WT mice to confirm this finding; however we did not note a change in EPSCs in CA1 in response to 2μM LPI. These data suggest GPR55 is expressed and physiologically relevant in the hippocampus. Because enhanced LTP is usually associated with better memory performance in rodents, this provides a potential target to enhance the cellular mechanism associated with memory formation.

Bryce Taylor and Ian Kesler, Southern Utah University Life Sciences Green infrastructure is the use of natural processes to manage stormwater runoff and has many positive effects on evaporative cooling, building energy demand, and wildlife habitat. Very little green infrastructure research has been conducted in arid environments such as Southern Utah. The scope of this research project is to establish a complete water budget of the green roof using a lysimeter (an acrylic box resting on a high-resolution weighing scale). The water budget will help in determining whether the cost of irrigating the green roof is off- set by the potential benefits to biodiversity and decreased energy demands.We have constructed a working lysimeter and will collect the required data by using: a high resolution scale, a tipping bucket to measure drainage, two soil moisture and temperature sensors and weather data from the campus weather station. A collection of mixed Sedum species vegetation will be planted in the lysimeter using a special green roof media to accurately simulate a greenroof environment. Both pitfall (used to capture grounded insects) and combination traps (used to capture airborne insects) will be used to measure the biodiversity. Data collection will begin during the winter of 2014 and continue indefinitely.

Danny Ferguson, Utah Valley University Life Sciences This research examined the acceptance of evolution for introductory Biology students and the reasons why they don’t accept evolution, accept evolution, and why they change their minds over the semester. Previous studies examined student’s observations and knowledge of the evolutionary theory and found that the degree of conflict students perceived between religion and science was negatively correlated with their knowledge of evolution. Objective: The objective of this research was to better understand the student’s views of evolution and its integration into their worldly and religious views. Methods: We will conduct interviews with general Biology students in order to better understand the reasons why they don’t accept evolution, accept evolution, and why they change their minds over the semester. The interview questions are designed to investigate, in more detail than the previous surveys, the opinions of evolution and how they change over the course of the semester. The recordings will be transcribed and quantified by binning answers into categories. Given high % of students are LDS, we will ask a few additional questions to this portion of the population. Results: We found that as students knowledge of evolution increased, their conflict with religion decreased. The data demonstrate that there are three main reasons for this trend: 1) Evidence convinces the students to accept evolution; 2) Particularly for LDS students, knowledge of the official position of the Church, enables them to allow evolution to be a correct process in nature; and 3) the instructor as a role model (believer yet accepts evolution) can have a large influence.

Jake Loveless, Utah Valley University Life Sciences Macroinvertebrate assemblage composition was assessed in two perennial streams, Pleasant Creek, and Sulphur Creek in Capitol Reef National Park, Utah, during the summer of 2014. Individuals collected were identified to genus. This information was used to compare assemblage composition, nutrient availability, and water quality between the two streams. Five collection trips were made (May 27, June 10,17, July 1,15). Sampling was conducted randomly using mesh kick nets with four samples being collected per site, per trip. Heavy rains caused flash flooding on July 15 prohibiting sampling, so a total of sixteen samples per site were taken. Samples were stored in 90% isopropyl alcohol until they could besorted and identified using a dissecting microscope. Water quality estimates were determined by taking the weighted average of the tolerance values, and the final classification was made using the family-level biotic index. Pleasant Creek showed the highest number of taxa present, fourteen, compared to six in Sulphur Creek. Both streams followed the predictions of the River Continuum Concept consisting of collector-dominated functional feeding groups, with Pleasant Creek showing a higher percentage of predators 35.7% to 16.6%. Tolerance values of collected taxa were used to estimate organic pollution indicating good water quality in Pleasant Creek, and fairly poor water quality in Sulphur Creek. The differences in the macroinvertebrate assemblage composition in this study were likely multi-causal. Stream size is a major factor influencing the structure of macroinvertebrate assemblages; in general, as stream size increases, more taxa are added. Pleasant Creek is a much larger stream with a well-established channel, while Sulphur Creek is shallow with depths never exceeding fifteen centimeters. The shallow channel of Sulphur Creek also made it prone to frequent flooding. Isolated floods have little impact on macroinvertebrate communities due to availability of aerial adults nearby to recolonize rapidly, however, frequent flooding may have long-term effects through extirpation of taxa with high mortality. The difference in water quality was the most surprising finding in this study. The fairly poor water quality of Sulphur Creek may also be a factor in the lack of genera found there. Organic pollution effects primary productivity in streams, and while primary productivity was not measured in this study, visual observations found very little algae or aquatic vegetation at Sulphur Creek.

Anne Thomas and Richard Gill, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Providing water for expanding urban communities in the western United States is a growing concern for city planners and governmental agencies. Landscaping can claim up to 50% of the urban water budget but also has the most potential for water conservation. Landscape water use is highly variable, however, because of species-specific differences in tree water use and because of decision-making by city planners and residents in maintaining trees. The objective of this study is to improve our ability to predict urban forest water use by identifying differences in tree basal area and diversity between neighborhoods that have arisen at different periods of development in Heber Valley, Utah. We classified neighborhoods as established, exurban (rural housing), commercial, or new tract based on age, location, and lot size. We performed a stratified random survey with twenty lots in each category and collected diameter and species data for each tree in the lot. Some of the patterns we observed were easily anticipated, such as higher basal area per hectare in the older, established neighborhoods relative to newer tract housing. Surprisingly, the number of individual trees per hectare in tract and established neighborhoods is very similar. Perhaps of more interest is the low species richness of tract housing compared to exurban communities. Because exurban communities are being replaced by tract housing there is evidence that tree diversity will be lost. Another important aspect of community structure in urban forests is the ratio of conifers to broadleaf trees because of fundamental differences in water use patterns. Conifers comprised twenty-five percent of the basal area in exurban and thirty-five percent in established neighborhoods, as opposed to five percent in tract. Our data suggest that tree diversity is likely to decrease while water demand is likely to increase with changes in urban forests in the coming decade.

Katherine Harris, Brady Evans and Thomas Andros, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Metabolic diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, have become endemic and the need for better treatments is rising. Mutations in PAS kinase, a recently discovered sensory kinase, have been shown to cause Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY) in humans (Semplici et al., 2011). In addition, PAS kinase deficient mice display many phenotypes related to diabetes including resistance to weight gain, insulin insensitivity and triglyceride accumulation in response to a high-fat diet (Hao et al., 2007). Despite its importance in metabolism, little is known about the regulation of PAS kinase. PAS kinase consists of a sensory PAS domain that binds to and inhibits a protein kinase domain (Amezcua et al, 2002). We are currently engaged in several yeast genetic screens which will allow identification of regions in the full length PAS kinase that are essential for activation or for binding its substrates. The first screen is based on the finding that PAS kinase overexpression rescues a temperature-sensitive mutation in Tor2, the tor2(ts). We have isolated both point mutations and truncations in PAS kinase which alleviate the tor2(ts), suggesting they are hyperactive alleles. These mutations identify novel regions involved in PAS kinase regulation. Our second screen uses the yeast 2-hybrid to select for both point mutations and truncations that increase the ability of PAS kinase to bind its substrates. These mutations will help identify key regions of PAS kinase utilized in substrate recognition. Finally, we have identified regions of PAS kinase that are well-conserved throughout evolution and will compare these regions with the regions affected by our mutations. This study will be the first reported mutagenic analysis of PAS kinase. Analysis of these specific genetic regions will help elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation and function of PAS kinase, a key player in the development of metabolic disease.

Scott Newton, Brigham Young University Life Sciences The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is known to controls the processing of rewarding and addictive behaviors. The VTA contains dopamine (DA) cells, which release DA to downstream targets in response to rewarding stimuli, and GABA cells, which modulate DA cell activity. Therefore, both cell types are involved in associative reward learning. Synaptic plasticity plays an important role in adaptive reward signaling within the VTA. Endocannabinoids mediate or modulate synaptic plasticity at synapses within the reward circuit. However, the source of endocannabinoids within the VTA is not well understood. Therefore, our goal was to describe the distribution of endocannabinoid biosynthetic enzyme mRNA within VTA neurons. We extracted single VTA neurons via whole cell patch clamp and used single-cell real-time quantitative PCR to identify DA and GABA neurons based on mRNA expression of cell-type specific targets. Additionally, electrophysiological properties such as action potential frequency and sag potential amplitude were examined between the two cell types. Concurrent with established observations, slower firing frequencies were observed in DAergic neurons, however overlap was identified between these two cell types. VTA neurons were then probed for endocannabinoid/ biosynthetic enzyme mRNA, such as N-acyl-phosphatidylethanolamine-specific phospholipase D (NAPE- PLD), diacylglycerol lipase α (DAGLα), and 12-lipoxygenase. We also probed for type I metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) mRNA, as endocannabinoid synthesis requires mGluR activation. Our data demonstrate that endocannabinoid biosynthetic enzyme mRNA is expressed in both DAergic and GABAergic cells with concurrent expression of type I mGluRs. Next, to ensure mRNA expression was representative of protein content, slices were stained using immunohistochemistry for GAD67, DAGLα, NAPE-PLD and type I mGluRs. Positive labeling for these targets was observed in VTA neurons, supporting our RT-PCR results. Collectively, these data suggest DAergic and GABAergic cells of the VTA have the capability to produce endocannabinoids and potentially alter synaptic plasticity involved in reward and addiction.

Alex Hyer, University of Utah Life Sciences Geochemical reactions associated with the process known as serpentinization can generate copious quantities of organic carbon and chemical energy that support life, but these reactions also greatly increase the pH of serpentinization sites. High-pH environments hinder ATP production because the low proton concentrations at high pH can result in a reversed proton gradient across cell membranes. Organisms present at serpentinization sites are not well-characterized, and adaptations to their alkaliphilic lifestyle are unknown. Bacillus pseudofirmus OF4 was not isolated from serpentinization sites, but it is a well- studied alkaliphile that has several distinct adaptations for ATP production in high pH environments. Its sequence for ATP synthase, the molecular motor responsible for ATP generation in the cell, contains several distinctive mutations including an AXAXAXA motif that increases the C-ring stoichiometry, a P51XXE54XXP57 motif that creates a distinct kink in the outer helix of the C-subunit, and a V21 mutation granting rotamer freedom to E54. In this study, we search for similar mutations in metagenomic databases containing DNA sequences collected from serpentinization sites. Analysis of alignments from the programs BLAST and Exonerate indicate that V21 is present in several alignments, but P51 is found in only a single alignment from serpentinization sites. The AXAXAXA motif is non- existent in our databases, but the more common GXGXGXG motif is present with alanine replacements occurring periodically. In general, these results indicate that our DNA sequences from high-pH sites of serpentinization are more reminiscent of typical neutrophiles than of the alkaliphile B. pseudofirmus OF4. Therefore, serpentinization- adapted organisms may harbor other adaptations to high pH such as local pmf regulation. Future work will test for quantitative correlations between environmental pH measurements and the incidence of mutations in ATP synthase in order to identify novel adaptations to high pH in serpentinization-driven ecosystems.

Jason Ray, Benjamin Bitner, Kyle Kener, and Brent Jackson, Brigham Young University Life Sciences Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes are increasing at an alarming rate. Both types of diabetes result in decreased functional β-cell mass, which is defined as the number of β-cells multiplied by their Glucose Stimulated Insulin Secretion rate. Decreased functional β-cell mass inhibits regulation of blood glucose levels. β-cells have an extremely low proliferation rate after adolescence, meaning the functional β-cell mass cannot naturally recover. Increasing functional β-cell mass could provide a cure for diabetes, either through pancreatic islet transplants or through enhancement of the endogenous β-cell population. Nkx6.1 has been shown to increase β-cell proliferation by inducing the nuclear receptors Nr4a.1 and Nr4a.3. We have shown that Nkx6.1 increases expression of the gene c-Fos, and that c-Fos induces expression of Nr4a1 and Nr4a3. Furthermore, we have shown that c-Fos is sufficient to induce proliferation of β-cells in the INS-1 832/3 cell line and in primary rat islets. Finally, using lenti-sh-c-Fos to create a stable c-Fos deficient stable cell line, we have demonstrated that Nkx6.1 mediated proliferation is modified by the lack of c-Fos. We propose a model by which c-Fos is a critical link between Nkx6.1 and Nr4a mediated β-cell proliferation.

Kari Norman, Utah State University Life Sciences The identification of important areas for biodiversity is essential for affective allocation of limited conservation resources. Since Myers’ seminal biodiversity hotspot paper in 2000, great strides have been made in more accurate global mapping. While global mapping identifies important patterns in large-scale biodiversity, conservation management rarely if ever occurs on the same scale. Finer scale mapping is therefore essential to make research applicable for on the ground decision-making. This project focuses on North America, a continent that holds no priority areas when included in a global analysis. Using citizen scientist data of multiple vertebrate and plant taxa, we created maps of species richness and significantly rare species. In addition, we created similar maps based on range map data and compared to determine if the two data types produced different biodiversity priority areas. The results of this study provide informative maps about the locations of species, their vulnerability, and how human action may impact them, as well as underline the importance of understanding the data behind their construction.