2020 Abstracts

Farstead, Brian; Williford, Tanner; Schow, Hunter; Muldowney, John; Stewart, Victoria (Brigham Young University)
Faculty Advisor: Lundwall, Rebecca (Brigham Young university, Psychology, Cognitive and Behavioral Nueroscience)

Reflexive and sustained attention are important components of daily functioning, and those who exhibit attention deficits typically have problems in school, work, and relationships. Previous studies have measured sustained and reflexive attention using different tasks with disparate stimuli. Because the stimuli are different, it is unclear how reflexive and sustained attention are related. There are some indications in the literature that individuals tend to be better at one or the other type of task.

We measured reflexive and sustained attention in a sample (N=185) of children who completed two computer tasks that recorded response time and accuracy. We developed the two tasks so that all stimuli were identical, but the reflexive attention task used peripheral stimuli and the sustained attention task used central stimuli. Parents also completed questionnaires reporting demographics (e.g., age and sex) and the child's usual sleep habits, behavior at home, and behavior at school. Asking about sleep, home behavior, and school behavior allows us to identify predictors of individual variability in computer-task scores.

We anticipated that children who have a better reflexive attention (lower response times and higher accuracy) would score lower on sustained attention. Furthermore, we expect the relationship between reflexive and sustained attention would be moderated by aspects of behavior related to sleep, home-life, and school. Determining the relationship between different components of attention is important because it will help us to understand the underlying factors that contribute to different deficits in attention. Furthermore, it is important to understand how these different components of attention manifest by age, sex, behaviors at home and behaviors in school. Understanding the relationship between reflexive and sustained attention and their association with child characteristics could potentially contribute to interventions in individuals who have symptoms of attentional deficits.

Geist, Claudia: Rodriguez, Johnny (University of Utah)
Faculty Advisor: Geist, Claudia (Sociology, Gender Studies)

Previous research has demonstrated variation between racial and ethnic groups in the patterns of access to, and use of highly effective and long-lasting contraception. There has been a lack of research on how race and ethnicity interact with social and economic predictors of contraceptive method use. Specifically, this research project identifies the variation in the effect of social and economic factors on contraceptive use patterns across ethnic/racial groups. We use data from the HER Salt Lake initiative, a prospective study that provided family planning clients in the state of Utah with various contraceptive choices, while also removing cost barriers. We first summarize social and economic characteristics, potential barriers, and ethnic/racial group. We next replicate existing research that predict usage of effective and long-lasting contraception (IUD and Implants) as a function of social, economic, and demographic characteristics, and more importantly, whether the impact of social and economic factors on contraceptive choice varies across racial and ethnic group. In a final analytic step, this project looks at how the impact of pregnancy intentions on contraceptive method choice varies across racial/ethnic group. Preliminary findings suggest that women of color face significantly higher health care barriers (both social and economic), yet there are no significant differences in the usage of IUDs and implants. By acknowledging social and economic factors as possible barriers to health care more broadly, and contraception specifically, and highlighting racial and ethnic variation in the impact of these factors, we hope to increase access to a wide range of contraceptive choices for all consumers.

Hansen, Rebecca; Spencer, Todd; Brosi, Matt; Hubler, Daniel (Utah Valley University)
Faculty Advisor: Spencer, Todd (Utah Valley University, Behavioral Science)

There has been a wealth of research examining the negative influence of stress on relationship outcomes. Additionally, research indicates the quality of communication between couples strongly influences their overall satisfaction in marriage (Fletcher, 2002). While stress has been associated with poorer communication quality among romantic partners (Bodenmann, 1997), little is known how relationship efficacy modifies that relationship. The purpose of the present study is to examine the extent relationship efficacy mediates the association between stress and communication quality. Our sample consists of 939 individuals who are between 18-70 years old and currently in a romantic relationship. Participants completed the Perceived Stress Scale - short form (PSS-4; Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983), Active-Empathetic Listening Scale (AELS; Bodie, 2011), and Relationship Efficacy Measure (REM; Fincham, Harold, & Gano-Phillips, 2000). Following the mediation analysis outlined by Baron and Kenny (1981), we found that relationship efficacy did mediate the relationship between stress and communication quality, F (2,901) = 111.39, p=<.001. Results provide empirical support for the potential relationship efficacy holds to ameliorate the detrimental effects of stress on communication quality among romantic partners.

Loveless, Emily; Mack, Brittney; Squire, Jenna; Turner, Haylee; Nicholls, Emily; Luke, Steven; Cabbage, Kathryn (Brigham Young University)
Faculty Advisor: Luke, Steven (College of Family Home and Social Sciences, Psychology); Cabbage, Kathryn (McKay School of Education, Communication Disorders)

Language impairment affects approximately 7-9% of all children and puts children at risk for long-term negative impacts on academic performance, development of social relationships, and even vocational outcomes in adulthood (Clegg, Hollis, Mawhood, & Rutter, 2005). Preschoolers with language impairment have reduced vocabulary, use less complex oral language structures, have difficulty comprehending grammatical structures in spoken language, and poor social communication (Paul & Norbury, 2018). At present, a common recommendation to improve literacy skills in typically developing children emphasizes exposing children to stories through shared book reading from a young age. When being read a storybook, preschoolers without language impairment are more likely to focus their attention on the objects and people specifically mentioned in the text (Luke & Asplund, 2018), suggesting that they are connecting storybook images with oral language comprehension. It is unknown, however, whether children with language impairment benefit in the same way from recommended exposure to shared book reading to improve language and literacy outcomes. Prior research with older children with language impairment has shown that these children initially attend to the appropriate object or person in the text but do not sustain their attention to items that are relevant to what they're hearing (Nation, Marshall, & Altmann, 2004), suggesting they may need support learning what to attend to when integrating oral language with visual images. In this study, we aim to see if a similar pattern emerges for preschool-aged children with language impairment. This study has a strong potential to significantly improve our understanding of how to support language development processes during storybook reading, specifically with children with language impairment.

Mattei, Dustin; Angell, Emma; Truman, Savanah; Holiday, Pam; Gonzales, Veronica; Price, Ashton (Dixie State University)
Faculty Advisor: Oxley, Robert (Dixie State University, Applied Sociology)

As part of Dixie State University's Institute for Social Research, this paper will identify questions pertaining to burnout. Recently, the World Health Organization has deemed burnout as a recognized syndrome. Building off of this new information, the ISR is looking at the overall social acceptance of burnout and how, as a society, it teaches individuals to accept it. Through the lens of symbolic interaction, the ISR looks at how the modern age of technology is affecting this acceptance. Specifically, the modern reliance upon technology is something that is looked at as contributor. The transfer of culture through common symbols is now faster than ever with the emergence of social media platforms. These meanings are portrayed through language, pictures and even trends that reveal societies acceptance of the feelings and symptoms associated with burnout. A great example of this would be the famous picture of the "don't give up!" frog in the stork's mouth. Even though the frog is being eaten, it's still trying to choke the stork. This picture may change, but the point behind the message is always clear, one must keep going even if it seems they are done. This social acceptance of burnout through the means of social media content is one part of the multiple facets the ISR is researching under the subject of burnout.

Buchanan, Shayne; Estevez, Angel (Weber State University)
Faculty Advisor: Chapman, Heather (Weber State University, Psychology)

Abstract:
Poverty is a major epidemic throughout the world. Being in an impoverished state is extremely difficult as it makes living that much more stressful. Those lacking the ability to attain basic needs such as food are at high risk of suffering physical and mental complications, along with environmental and social issues.
One of the biggest issues regarding poverty is the problem malnutrition presents. Among many complications that malnutrition creates, the most concerning is impairments in cognitive development. This can lead to children performing poorly in school. While malnutrition is a problem among those suffering from impoverished circumstances, there are organizations that provide some relief.
Foundations and organizations that provide such assistance include food banks, charities, and churches, etc. This alleviates some of the difficulties surrounding a life in poverty. If participants are not willing to return or do not continue receiving support for various reasons, poverty will persist. One of these reasons may be user satisfaction.
It can be difficult to know how parents and families feel about the satisfaction of certain aspects these foundations provide. Families receiving assistance from food pantries may discontinue participation if they feel their needs are not met. Satisfaction of various aspects of food is an important determinant in regards to overall usage for food banks. To identify levels of satisfaction from assistance programs, we set up a user satisfaction survey for participants to complete in order to measure their overall satisfaction. To be specific, we are measuring satisfaction of the quality, quantity, and ease of process in acquiring food from Granite Education Foundation food banks.

Mauchley, Olivia; Kamimura, Akiko (University of Utah)
Faculty Advisor: Kamimua, Akiko (Social and Behavioral Science, Sociology)

The purpose of this study is to examine awareness about environmental issues among undergraduate students in Utah. As climate change and environmental problems have, and continue to negatively affect the future, it is pertinent that students stay up to date and aware of these issues. Misinformation or lack of information has harmful effects to the environment and sustainability policies. College students are the next generation to formally work on these problems, and have an important role to play in climate change activism and solutions.

A self-administered paper survey was collected from undergraduate students attending social science classes at the University of Utah in September and October 2019. There were 450 total surveys collected. The results found showed that participants were more likely to agree with the following statements: "Solving environmental problems depends on actions by each and every one of us" and "Environmental problems must be solved through international co-operation." More than 40% of the participants reported environmental problems influenced their daily life a lot/very much. The top 3 serious environmental issues noted by the participants included lack of access to clean water, ocean pollution, and air pollution. The most common behavior implemented to protect the environment among the participants was to "Turn off the lights and other electronics when you leave a room." As for climate change, the participants tended to agree "Climate change will be serious in the world."

From these results we can conclude that undergraduate students are most aware of environmental problems that directly affect their daily lives and problems that receive the most attention on social media. Ultimately most undergraduate students in Utah are aware of the severity of climate change, though few seem to be focused on what they can do about it directly.

Clark, Jessica (Brigham Young University)
Faculty Advisor: Allison, Jim (Family Home and Social Sciences, Anthropology)

The Kiva was an important element to daily like in the ancient ancestral Puebloan culture. Using construction materials gathered from an excavation at a Pueblo III site in southeastern Utah, the project focuses on how the raw materials of the area were exploited for construction purposes. By examining the composition of plaster, mortar, and masonry rocks I hope to gain a more insightful understanding of how the Ancestral Puebloan people used their available resources. In addition, studying impressions on burned impressed adobe, along with charcoal samples from site, will help me to gain an understanding of the wood used for the kiva roof, as well as potentially showing how the roof of the structure held. Because indigenous people of the American Southwest have strong ties with the earth, gaining a small understanding of how their ancestors used the land is an important study.

Angell, Emma; Wood, Kyle; Holiday, Pamela; Price, Ashton; Gonzales, Veronica; Mattei, Dustin (Dixie State University)
Faculty Advisor: Oxley, Robert (Dixie State University, Sociology)

As part of the Dixie State University Quality of Life Initiative, the research topic proposed by the Institute for Social Research (ISR) is the social contract of burnout in society. The World Health Organization recently recognized burnout as a serious syndrome. It is also apparent that individuals in numerous workforce or school settings have dealt with it in some way. However, many do not fully understand what burnout is and how to properly deal with or treat it. What is burnout? Burnout has many definitions but the most common is that it is a condition, either physical or mental, caused by an individual being overworked or stressed. Burnout can lead to exhaustion, loss of motivation, anxiety, depression, procrastination, etc. The ISR team asks the question, "How has burnout been accepted into societies contract?" It is described as a social contract because we as members of society have implicitly agreed to accept burnout as a social norm. We will also take a look at Robert Merton's strain theory and how the pressure of society to achieve goals relates to this concept. The Institute for Social Research dives further by using data that has already been researched on burnout and has conducted a survey for students and faculty at Dixie State University. The ISR team will also take a closer look at technology and how it has affected an individual's work week.

Coy, Rachel; Macfarlan, Shane J. (University of Utah)
Faculty Advisor: Macfarlan, Shane (University of Utah, Anthropology)

United States war veterans suffer from a variety of negative outcomes, including suicide and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). These negative outcomes may be due in part to how modern militaries treat moral trauma associated with war — as a transaction leaving warriors with minimal psycho-social support. Scholars have noted many cultures employ post-combat rituals to help reintegrate war veterans back to civilian life and these may be designed to treat PTSD specifically; however, none have ever systematically tested this. We test the hypothesis that post-combat rituals function to mitigate war-induced PTSD by extracting data from the electronic Human Relations Area Files, a repository of digitized ethnographic materials spanning 300 world cultures that are fully searchable by keywords, in conjunction with diagnostic criteria used in the DSM-5. Consistent with diagnostic criteria for PTSD, our analyses reveal that seclusion and sexual abstinence were frequent post-combat rituals (40% and 37.5%, respectively). Interestingly, we find a high prevalence of warrior contamination beliefs following war (80% of cultures). Strangely, food taboos were the most prevalent (42.5%) ritual yet were not represented in the DSM-5 PTSD criteria; this could be explained by comorbid depression affecting warrior's appetites and will be important in future work. These findings were consistent with the view that some war rituals are designed to treat PTSD. However, it appears some rituals have nothing to do with it. This suggests that war rituals may have another purpose such as warriors gaining cultural rewards to help with the transition back to civilian life. I highlight the importance of these findings as 1) an alternative treatment option for veterans suffering from PTSD and 2) as a therapeutic mechanism for reintegrating U.S. soldiers back to civilian life.

McClain Verdoes, Maryellen; Ha, Jennifer (Utah State University)
Faculty Advisor: McClain Verdoes, Maryellen (Emma Eccles Jones College of Education & Human Services, Psychology Department)

This research will assess whether there is a significant difference in the correlation of attention and reading levels of school aged children that have Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and the correlation of attention and reading levels of school aged children that do not have ASD. I will be looking at data from two populations: school aged children with ASD and school aged children without ASD. Most of the participants for this study will come from Cache County, Utah, so that limiting factor of sample demographics should be taken into account.

Considering the meager amount of research that has been done on the attention and reading achievement of children with ASD, the purpose of this poster presentation is to (1) display the methodology, data, and findings of this research project and (2) discuss any implications this may have and where to go next. Depending on the results, if they are significant, this project may be built upon and further developed to examine possible factors that may affect or lead to significant results.

The CONNERS 3 assessment was administered to evaluate the attention levels of school age children six to twelve years of age. This assessment is generally used in helping diagnose ADHD (Connors, Pitkanen, & Rzepa, 2008;Pearson, 2008). It takes into account the social, home, and school setting of the child. The GORT 5 assessment was also administered to those same subjects to assess their reading ability at the time (Wiederholt & Bryant, 2012). SPSS was used to run analyses and results were exported in tables from the program.

Hellstern, Rylan; Fauth, Elizabeth; Aller, Ty (Utah State University)
Faculty Advisor: Fauth, Elizabeth (Emma Eccles Jones College of Education & Human Services, Human Development and Family Studies Department); Aller, Ty (Emma Eccles Jones College of Education & Human Services, Human Development and Family Studies Department)

Mental health literacy (MHL), defined as knowledge and beliefs about mental disorders which aid in recognition, management, and prevention of mental health disorders, is crucial in promoting mental health prevention rather than just intervention (Jorm et al., 1997). MHL is low among the public (Klineberg et al., 2011), varying demographically (Reavley et al., 2011), and is low in college populations (Vasquez, 2016). This is concerning, considering rates of mental health issues among students (Storrie, et al., 2010). One interesting population are students who have had mental health diagnoses and/or who receive therapy. These students may be vulnerable due to their own mental health issues, but also may have increased MHL due to experience and educative supportive services. I hypothesize that students with prior diagnoses and/or therapy will be more likely to recognize mental health issues, feel confident about helping others, and act on that confidence (high MHL). In the current study, Amazon's Mechanical Turk was used to collect MHL data from college students across the US (N=306; ages 18-25; 52.6% female; 44.8% male, 2.6% other). Nineteen percent (N=58) reported receiving therapy over the past three months, while 113 (36.9%) reported having a mental health diagnosis over their lifetime. MHL was measured via the Mental Health Awareness and Advocacy Assessment Tool (MHAA-AT), assessing MHL Knowledge (subscales Identifying, Locating resources, Responding), MHL Self-efficacy, and MHL Responding behaviors. Independent samples t-tests (p<.05) indicated that students in therapy had higher average MHAA-AT Knowledge [Identifying], Self-efficacy, and Responding behaviors. Students with history of a mental health diagnosis had higher MHAA-AT Knowledge [Identifying, Locating], Self-efficacy, and Responding behaviors. In conclusion, students with history of diagnosis or in therapy may be a resource to universities, due to their higher MHL, including greater knowledge about mental health issues, confidence surrounding MHL, and the willingness to respond and refer.

Hall, Anna; Fauth, Elizabeth (Utah State University)
Faculty Advisor: Fauth, Elizabeth (Emma Eccles Jones College of Education & Human Services, Human Development and Family Studies Department)

Objective: Fine motor abilities (FMA) are essential to activities of daily living (ADL) that help older people remain independent. While some older adults with reduced FMA are aware of their impairment, others are not aware, which can be problematic if they do not seek ways to compensate for losses. I hypothesize that most older adults living in the community are aware of their losses, and self-reported FMA ability will correspond to actual performance of FMA tasks. Method: Data came from OCTO-Twin, a population-based dataset of twin pairs in Sweden aged 80 and older. We randomly selected one twin from each pair because twin status was not of interest to this study, and only included people who completed fine motor tasks (N = 262, 66.4% female; Mage = 83.27, SDage=2.90). Within a large battery of self-report and performance tasks, participants were asked their perceived ability to manipulate things with their hands (Cannot do at all, Big problem, Some problem, No problem). They were also timed (in seconds) on performing FMA tasks via ADL apparatus (putting coins in a slot, screwing in a light bulb, etc.). We defined someone as "slow" in FMA tasks if they were more than one standard deviation from the total mean (nslow=38, taking 80+ seconds). Results: Cross tabulations indicated, of "slow" participants, n=1 (2.6%) self-reported "cannot do at all", n=2 (5.3%) reported "big problem", n=10 (26.3%) reported "some problem", and n=25 (65.8%) reported "no problem". In comparison, of participants who were average or fast, 193 (85.8%) reported "no problem." Implications: Surprisingly, nearly 2/3 of people who were slow on FMA tasks self-reported that they had "no problems" with hand manipulation. Being unaware of deficiencies may lead to adverse effects via lack of compensation in ADL, but may also be mentally protective to help cope with physical losses.

Krishtof, Maryna (Utah Valley University)
Faculty Advisor: Anderson, Chris (Utah Valley University, Behavioral Science)

Violence and aggression are an unfortunate reality of modern society. It is believed that multiple factors contribute to aggression. Does boredom promote aggressive behaviors? Rubb and Vodanovich (1997) published a Boredom Proneness test and reported their usual anger and aggression levels. Results indicated that people who scored higher on BPS reported being more aggressive. Because this study was based on self-reports I believe it would be useful to examine whether this would manifest on a behavior. Also, a recent murder of Chris Lane by three teenagers was reported by Oklahoma news, teenagers murdered because they "were bored." Police officers noted that in wintertime crime changes from property theft to domestic violence. In one of the reports by the Bureau of Justice Statistics from 2014, it was shown that even though the overall crime rates are going down in the United States, rises in violent crime can be noticed during wintertime. This research is intended to look at aggression and its relation to boredom. In the study, participants would be asked to fill out the boredom proneness test (BPS) and after sitting in an empty room with only two objects present, a plush toy and a toy rubber hammer. Final measurements will be an average score of people who scored low (within 28-81) on BPS test and high (82-153 and above) and the time it took participants in each group to aggressively act towards the toy or other objects in the room (chair, table, walls). I hypothesize that if people are presented with a chance, they will aggressively play with the toy presented to relieve boredom. This response can give us information on how people may act in real-life situations. The question that I hope to answer with my research is "Will boredom promote aggressive behavior?"

Rawlings, Jared; Young, Jacob (University of Utah)
Faculty Advisor: Rawlings, Jared (University of Utah, School of Music)

School violence has emerged in the last ten years as a significant public health crisis that include behaviors ranging from bullying, hate-based language, sexual harassment, and physical assaults (Robers, Kemp, & Truman, 2013). A recent study found that almost one-third of students in grades 6-12 reported they had been victimized by peers, and 5% to 13% admitted to bullying others (Hymel & Swearer, 2015).

Researchers in music education acknowledge peer victimization and bullying is also a serious concern for music students (Elpus & Carter, 2016; Silveira & Hudson, 2015; Rawlings, 2015, 2016). Elpus and Carter (2016) examined data from the 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, and 2013 datasets of the School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) to determine the prevalence of reported school victimization through physical, verbal, and relational aggression among US performing arts students. Elpus and Carter found that male music and theater students are at a 69% greater risk than non-arts students when experiencing face-to-face bully victimization and male music and theatre students were confronted with a 63% greater risk of being cyber bullied than non-arts participants. Therefore, if school music students may be more likely to be targets of victimization and feel unsafe at school when compared to their non-music peers, then research is needed to determine the prevalence of these behaviors and document detailed instances of this phenomenon. To date, there has been no published research examining the the prosocial and anti-social behavior development of school-based music ensemble performers.

Taylor Cline, Kent D. Hinkson Jr., Malisa M.Brooks, Craig J. Bryan (University of Utah)
Faculty Advisor: Hinkson, Kent (University of Utah, Psychology)

Abstract:

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is a debilitating and exhaustive disorder that has been under official observation since the first World War and has received attention from Psychologists in both research and clinic settings. In a study by Spoormaker and Montgomery (2008), they determined that disturbed sleep in PTSD is a core feature of the disorder rather than a secondary characteristic. Spoormaker et. al (2008) also indicated that treatment for insomnia for persons with PTSD would be beneficial by offering brief sleep hygiene education, and stimulus control methods in treatment with persons who have PTSD.

This study examines the scores from Item #20 of the PTSD Checklist (PCL-5; “How much were you bothered by trouble falling or staying asleep?”, rated from 0 – 4) and compares them with the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) sum score to determine if Item #20 has a sufficiently strong relationship with respect to the ISI sum score so as to be useful in screening for insomnia in individuals with PTSD. Three hundred twenty-one (n = 321) student veterans participated in the nationwide study. Among the participants, 94.1% of those who marked “1”, “2”, “3”, or “4” on PCL-5 Item #20 met ISI criteria for insomnia, while those who endorsed “0” (“Not at all”) scored substantially below the criteria for insomnia on average. While the eight-item ISI gives more information on the nature of the sleep disturbances, Item #20 of the PCL-5 appears to do a good job at screening for those likely to meet diagnostic criteria for insomnia; this could allow clinicians and primary care staff to reduce the burden during routine mental health screenings among potentially traumatized individuals.

Downey, Haylee; Odum, Amy; Haynes, Jeremy; Galizio, Annie (Utah State University)
Faculty Advisor: Odum, Amy (Emma Eccles Jones College of Education & Human Services, Psychology Department)

Impulsivity has been associated with a wide range of poor health behaviors including substance abuse and unhealthy eating. Delay discounting, the tendency for more remote outcomes to be devalued, has been used as a measure of impulsivity. Delay discounting is often measured by asking individuals to choose several times between smaller sooner outcomes and larger later outcomes. In delay discounting, the domain effect refers to the tendency for different outcomes to be discounted at different levels (e.g., people tend to be more impulsive about food, alcohol, and entertainment than money). Thus, some researchers have suggested that the different rates of delay discounting for different outcomes reflect different processes (i.e., delay discounting for different outcomes is not necessarily correlated for individuals). Others suggest that delay discounting is a trait. If delay discounting is trait-like, we would expect that individuals who are more impulsive about money are also more impulsive about food, drugs, and other outcomes (i.e., individual degree of delay discounting is correlated for different outcomes). We examined 53 studies using systematic review techniques to examine delay discounting of different outcomes. For the 29 studies included in Analysis 1, we found evidence to support that delay discounting is a trait. Out of the 86 correlations we examined, 83 showed non-zero, positive correlation between delay discounting of money and delay discounting of an alternative outcome. For the 28 studies included in Analysis 2, we also found support for the domain effect, a state influence: discounting of money was lower than discounting of alternative outcomes in most comparisons. In conclusion, delay discounting appears to be a generalizable, unified process, involving both state and trait influences, thus demonstrating its potential as a behavioral intervention target.

Smith, Josh; Sam, Lizzy (Utah State University)
Faculty Advisor: Smith, Josh (Jon M. Huntsman School of Business, Economics and Finance Department)

The relationship between immigration and crime is a perennial topic of political debate where extreme claims are often made with little empirical evidence provided. Academic research provides insights into how immigration to an area affects its crime rates. Overall, the existing research suggests that immigrants are less likely to commit crime than US citizens. The research also suggests ways that policies can be designed to account for the rare cases where immigrants are involved in crime. Specifically, the research suggests providing access to legal work opportunities.