Architecture

Authors: Tessa Sabin, Derek Bagley, Kylie Olsen, Alexis Klein, Haven Broadhurst. Mentors: Sandi Gillam. Insitution: Utah State University. The purpose of this project was to create systematic, reliable rubrics for using the Frog Story series in language sample analysis for the diagnosis and treatment of children with developmental language disorders (DLD).Language sample analysis is a critical part of the assessment process by speech language pathologists (SLPs) for determining whether a child has a developmental language disorder. This is accomplished by analyzing a child’s use of vocabulary, sentence structures, and grammatical markers (i.e., past tense) and comparing it to their typically developing peers. Once diagnosed, language sampling is used as part of progress monitoring efforts to ensure the child is making reasonable progress toward their language goals in one (or all) of these areas.Elicitation of language from a child is often achieved by asking them to tell a story. One popular way that SLPs have obtained samples is to ask them to retell one of four popular wordless picture books from the Frog Story series by Mercer Mayer. This series involves the antics of a frog and his boy as they encounter different adventures. There is no rubric or “analysis key” associated with the stories leaving the SLP to decide how to use the information obtained from the story independently. This makes it hard to obtain reliable results over multiple time points for use in progress monitoring.In this project, a team analyzed all four Frog stories for their inclusion of specific story elements (i.e., character, setting, episode), vocabulary and sentence structures; and separate rubrics were created. The methodology for identifying the language parameters of interest, reliability in coding, and uses for the rubrics will be described. The rubrics will be automated using a web application so clinicians can upload their child’s story and have them instantly scored, making their use in analysis more reliable and consistent.

Authors: Grant Hendrickson, Christian Moody, Nellie Bowman, Nick Jeffery, Cairo Ziebarth, Joel Davis, Melissa Reeves, Heather Wilson Ashworth. Mentors: Heather Wilson Ashworth. Insitution: Utah Valley University. Self-competence and effort belief may impact student motivation and success in introductory chemistry courses. Self-competence is the need to feel efficacious and capable3. Effort belief is the concept that working harder at a task produces better results4. Mastery-Based Grading (MBG), a nonconventional grading method, provides multiple opportunities for students to show mastery of the course learning objectives5. This research examines the effect of Mastery-Based Grading (MBG) in an active learning classroom on student's self-competence and effort belief compared to that of a conventional grading (CG) approach in a traditional lecture-based classroom. Hypothesis: MBG leads to increased student self-competence and effort belief compared to CG courses. Self-determination1 and expectancy-value theories2 provide the context for understanding the self-competence and effort belief data. At a private midwestern college, general chemistry students in an active learning, MBG course (53 students) and a lecture course (48 students) with a conventional grading policy were studied using a mixed methods approach. Surveys containing Likert and reflection questions were given during week 3 and 14 of the semester. A coding scheme was developed, and reflection questions were coded to consensus. Coded data had a Pearsons coefficient greater than 0.76. Results: Notably, students with initially low self-competency Likert scores showed significant improvement (p=0.01) in the MBG-active course, but not in the conventional course. No significant improvement was observed in students' effort-belief scores as the scores were high at the beginning and stayed high at the end of the semester. In response to the reflection question, “Do you believe you have the ability to be successful in this course?”, there was a 15.35 percent increase in responses that reflected effort-belief in the MBG active learning course. This theme was absent in CG courses throughout the semester. It is noteworthy that MBG students recognized (14.29% compared to pre-reflections) the specific components of the course structure that helped students succeed. This early explorative data suggests that students in active learning MBG courses may experience an increase in self-competence and perceived effort belief compared to their counterparts in traditional classes. 1Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R.J., Pelletier, L.G. & Ryan, R.M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26, 325-346. 2Eccles (Parsons), J. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behavior. in J.T. Spence (Ed.) Achievement and Achievement Motivation. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. 3Ferrell, Brent and Jack Barbera. (2017). Analysis of students’ self-efficacy, interest, and effort beliefs in chemistry. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 16; 31-337. 4Skinner, E., Saxton, E., Currie, C., & Shusterman, G. (2017). A motivational account of the undergraduate experience in science: brief measures of students’ self-system appraisals, engagement in coursework, and identity as a scientist. International Journal of Science Education, 39(17), 2433-2459. 5Toledo, S., & Dubas, J. M. (2017). A learner-centered grading method focused on reaching proficiency with course learning outcomes. Journal of Chemical Education, 94(8), 1043-1050.

Authors: Brandon Ascione. Mentors: Katie Paxman. Insitution: Brigham Young University. T 1.4.1 contains what appears to be a skeptical regressive argument that ultimately leads to a complete loss of belief. Yet, Hume claims that neither he nor anyone else is compelled by this argument because like breathing, it is the nature of humans to form beliefs. Thus, it becomes challenging to understand why anyone would engage in such a skeptical thought process from the start. Drawing on Peter Millican’s critique of this iterating skepticism and Donald Ainslie’s interpretive work on T 1.4.1, it becomes clear that there is disagreement over what Hume’s intended purposes for T 1.4.1 might be. This paper argues that T 1.4.1 is an account of the psychology of a particular kind of skeptical disposition. Hume’s work on the passions can account and explain the psychology of the skeptic with this skeptical disposition. By taking a more holistic analysis of passages from Books 1 and 2 of the Treatise and citing Margaret Watkins’ conception of delicacy of passion, a compelling case is made that Hume’s own skeptical crisis from T 1.4.7 was motivated by such a skeptical disposition that was driven by the passion of fear.

Authors: Maddie Reese, Meg Boren, Emma Sellers, Sheri Tesseyman. Mentors: Sheri Tesseyman. Insitution: Brigham Young University. Maddie Reese, Meg Boren, Emma Sellers, Sheri Tesseyman “Utah Women in Medicine,” pioneering physicians Introduction Utah leaders made efforts to promote female physicians early in its establishment. In a newly flourishing territory, men needed to work the land, hence the push for women to become physicians. The purpose of this research was to understand the significance of Utah women in medicine and their role in shaping the development of nursing practice. Methods This study draws on secondary material about women physicians in early Utah, American medical and nursing education, Utah history, and nursing and healthcare among Latter-Day Saint women. The results of the study are based on historical analysis of primary materials including 19th-century periodicals published in Utah including the Women’s Exponent and the Relief Society Magazine, personal papers, and memoirs. Outcomes and implications The pioneering contributions of early Utah women in medicine, including Romania B. Pratt Penrose and Ellis Reynolds Shipp, had profound implications. They established medical practices and educational programs, training numerous women in nursing and midwifery. Their work contributed to elevating the status of medicine and midwifery in Utah. Moreover, their collaboration resulted in the creation of the groundbreaking "Deseret Hospital" in 1882, accommodating patients and serving as a training center for midwives and nurses. Their enduring legacy lies in their commitment to education, innovation, and compassionate care, shaping the healthcare landscape in Utah.

Authors: Gaby Sutton Clark, Emily Santillán, Katreena Merrill. Mentors: Katreena Merrill. Insitution: Brigham Young University. Background: In the United States, an estimated 1 in 36 children has autism spectrum disorder (ASD). While public knowledge of people with ASD has been increasing, many areas of society still need to improve to accommodate people with ASD. People with ASD have high healthcare utilization rates but often experience challenges receiving adequate care, leading to gaps in patient care, increased emergency room visits, and hospital admissions. Adjustments to primary care for patients with ASD are essential to decreasing these concerning trends. Thus, ambulatory care providers have a key role in these improvements. This project will, therefore, focus on improving the self-efficacy of ambulatory care nurse practitioners in the state of Utah in caring for patients with ASD. The purpose of this project is to develop an evidence-based educational video on how to identify and make accommodations to facilitate the care of patients with ASD and evaluate the effectiveness of the video.Methods: The project team includes graduate student Emily Santillan, faculty chair Dr. Katreena Merrill, committee members Dr. Terisa Gabrielson and Dr. Petr Ruda, and undergraduate student Gabby Sutton. The team consulted together and developed an evidence-based script for an educational video. Based on the script and working with the team, the video will be produced by BYU Media Services. Once the video is produced, the team will embed it into a Qualtrics survey that includes pre- and post-intervention surveys. The pre-survey will include basic demographic questions and the “AASPIRE Adult Autism Provider Self-Efficacy Scale” to measure provider self-efficacy in caring for patients with Autism. The post-survey will include the same self-efficacy scale to measure any changes, as well as feedback questions on the video itself. The results and feedback will be used in a future project to disseminate the video further.Results: This project is still in process, and no results have been obtained.Implications for Nursing: Nurses in every specialty will encounter Autistic patients. Being familiar with strategies to improve their nurse-patient interactions will help nurses deliver excellent care to potentially vulnerable patients.Conclusion: While the project has not been completed, we plan on using the results to improve the educational video and pursue more widespread implementation.

Authors: Lincoln Whitney. Mentors: Jordan Watkins. Insitution: Brigham Young University. This paper delves into the profound theophanic encounter presented in Ether 3 of the Book of Mormon, offering a comprehensive analysis of this divine revelation. Through a rigorous examination of the Hebrew Bible, I draw parallels between Ether 3 and the theophany in Exodus 3, shedding light on the striking similarities and divergences between the two narratives. The study employs a multidisciplinary approach, blending textual analysis, historical context, and theological interpretation, to provide a nuanced understanding of these encounters.One of the central arguments put forth in this paper is the proposition of a phenomenological reading of Book of Mormon Christology, particularly as it relates to the theophany in Ether 3. By employing a phenomenological framework, I aim to uncover the lived experiences of those involved in these divine encounters, emphasizing the significance of human subjectivity in the interpretation of such transcendent events. This approach not only enriches our understanding of the theological content in the Book of Mormon but also invites a more profound engagement with the text and its implications for contemporary religious thought.The paper concludes by highlighting the enduring relevance of theophanies in scriptural narratives and underscores the significance of adopting a phenomenological lens when studying religious texts. By examining the theophanies in Ether 3 and Exodus 3 through this unique perspective, I hope to contribute to a deeper appreciation of divine encounters and the development of Christology within the Book of Mormon tradition.

Authors: Luke Beckstrand. Mentors: Tyler Gardner. Insitution: Brigham Young University. (47 word abstract)With their diverse range of writing-related needs and goals, multilingual students in a university writing classroom can benefit from consistent, one-on-one support from a trained peer tutor. In this presentation, I share my experiences as an embedded peer tutor in a first-year composition class for multilingual writers.(214 word abstract)There has been a recent explosion of research surrounding writing centers' relationships with the many multilingual students they serve. This research has led to the development of new resources for multilingual writers within the writing center context, including longitudinal peer-tutoring, that have yielded significant and positive results. However, much less research has taken place surrounding multilingual writers’ experiences within a composition classroom. Throughout a semester embedded as a tutor inside of two first-year multilingual composition courses, I was able to gather research and test possible applications of longitudinal peer-tutoring inside the classroom. Multilingual students need, and desperately want, writing help in all contexts. Many multilingual students flock to writing centers, who are more than happy to help, but the majority of multilingual students’ experiences with university writing continue to take place solely within the classroom. There are also many multilingual students who don’t have access to writing centers, and others that do, but don’t have sufficient time to dedicate to visiting it frequently. My research indicates that a single peer-tutor embedded within the classroom can overcome many of these obstacles and give these students the help that they desire through a similar longitudinal peer-tutoring relationship that has been achieved at some writing centers.Keywords: Writing Center, Multilingual Tutoring, Longitudinal Peer-tutoring, Classroom Applications, One-off Sessions,

Authors: Jens Watts. Mentors: Brian Harker. Insitution: Brigham Young University. What is a standard at its essence? Wren 2022 suggests that in jazz scholarship, undue emphasis has been placed on the analysis of the standard as a work. Instead, the standard should be understood as an archive: the sum of all relationships between different iterations of the work. I posit that further work in this mode will help to correct an antiquated philosophy of music existing on a page and direct further attention to the act of ‘musicking,’ as promoted by Christopher Small in his 1998 book.This article examines three jazz standards: “On the Sunny Side of the Street,” “Autumn Leaves,” and “On Green Dolphin Street.” These standards were chosen because of their varying interpretations in harmony and melody. My analysis of these standards is threefold: theoretical, historical, and ethnographic. I begin with an analysis of the published sheet music for each of these standards, examining unique features of their pitch content. From there, I depart to a historical analysis, examining changes in the performance of the tune over time.The bulk of my research reports on an ethnography of jazz musicians on the Utah scene. My interlocutors were asked to play the standards in question, which I recorded. I examine common features of their interpretations, as well as salient differences. Some of their thoughts on these standards in particular and the practice of learning standards in general are also presented. The resulting collection of information on my multidisciplinary approach to analyzing standards reveals important aspects of the epistemology of jazz music and the ontology of standards themselves.

Authors: Jessica Anderson. Mentors: Jennifer Kohler. Insitution: Utah Tech University. Social media, television, and Cinema all play key roles in shaping our perception of reality. This study examines stigmas and stereotypes of disabilities that are perpetuated through the media specifically through these three sources. It also examines the presence of inspiration porn and the proper representation of physical disabilities in these media sources.

Authors: Samuel Zenteno. Mentors: Brandon Ro. Insitution: Utah Valley University. Evolution of Elementary School Architecture:Elementary school architecture has evolved significantly, reflecting shifts in educational philosophies, technological advancements, and societal priorities. From humble one-room schoolhouses to technologically advanced, sustainable, and inclusive learning spaces, the architectural form mirrors broader changes in education and society. What architectural form best reflects the ideal elementary school learning environment? Studying the evolution of elementary school architecture offers society several advantages:• Informed Design: By understanding the historical context and design trends, architects and educators can create more effective, engaging, and sustainable learning spaces.• Educational Enhancement: Insights from past designs can lead to environments that support modern teaching methods and foster improved student outcomes.• Equity in Education: Recognizing disparities in school facilities informs efforts to ensure all students have access to high-quality educational spaces.Research Methods:This research employs a comprehensive approach, combining historical analysis, architectural documentation, case studies, and conducting surveys with community members. Comparative studies of architectural styles, education methods, and pedagogical influences will shed light on ideal architectural forms for learning environments.Expected Results:Anticipated outcomes include a nuanced historical narrative of elementary school architecture, identification of pivotal design trends, insights into the societal forces that shaped these changes, and a repository of best practices. Ultimately, this research aims to empower architects, educators, policymakers, and communities to collaboratively shape the future of elementary school architecture, fostering equitable, innovative, and sustainable educational environments.An elementary school is the first public building that a child is called to regularly experience, be educated, find a playground, and socialize. In that sense, it is about to become a second home. By understanding the past, we can better prepare for the future of elementary school design.

Authors: Angela Gomez. Mentors: Chizu Matsubara. Insitution: Utah Tech University. Once students know their letter names and sounds, educators have them begin to learn irregular words, commonly known as sight words. These words are irregular due to them not following common patterns that make up a word. Typically, teaching irregular words is done by having students learn a set number of words through flashcards or reading them off a list. However, students who learn irregular words with flashcards or lists struggle and need help when reading those same words in a text. Action research will be used to study the hypothesis: “Will direct phonics literacy instruction help students learn and retain irregular words?” The research is being conducted in a kindergarten classroom by a preservice teacher in her practicum placement. The focus students for the research will be working with the preservice teacher in a small group setting where they will be reading decodable texts that contain irregular words within the text. The students will be able to decode the regular words they come across using their knowledge of alphabet letters and sounds. Students will be learning the irregular words of the text through direct phonics instruction to help them learn and retain their knowledge of irregular words. By using direct phonics instruction within a text, students can learn how to successfully read the irregular word while simultaneously applying it to a text. The other approach to learning irregular words is reading them on flashcards or a list and then having students transfer their knowledge of these words from a list to reading them in a text, which can become problematic for students as they cannot do so. By having students learn irregular words through direct phonics instruction, the expected result is to have students know around 50 irregular words by the deadline required by the local school district.

Authors: Christopher Galbraith, Derek Langford, Hillary Wadsworth, Eliza White, Erin Taylor, Lauren Ford. Mentors: Jordan Yorgason. Insitution: Brigham Young University. Microglia are monocyte derived immune cells and exhibit complex signaling behavior that include phagocytic activity to threats and prolonged neuronal activity. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a known chemoattractant for microglia, but how chemoattraction is modulated by other transmitters is not well understood. ATP is co-packaged and released with dopamine, thus the present work examines microglia morphology and motility in the context of these two transmitters. Microelectroiontophoresis and multiphoton microscopy were used in brain slices from transgenic mice to examine effects of dopamine and ATP signaling on microglia. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) transitioned the microglia from ramified to amoeboid morphology over a period of 4 hours. LPS also increased both dopamine and ATP release, as measured by fast scan cyclic voltammetry on a similar time course. Surprisingly, dopamine itself did not act as a chemoattractant to microglia, despite increasing after LPS treatment. By examining this relationship between neuronal and microglial activation we can better understand the complex circuitry of the reward pathway and immune system activation.

Authors: Daniel Luke Isemonger, Jacob Cecil, Noah Moffat, Nathaniel Horne, Jordan Yorgason. Mentors: Jordan Yorgason. Insitution: Brigham Young University. Anxiety disorders are increasingly prevalent, and can be exacerbated by drug use, which can contribute to further drug seeking behavior. The underlying neural mechanisms of this relationship are not fully understood, but dopamine transmission is thought to play a key role. The goal of this project is to develop innovative tools to elucidate the role of dopamine and drugs of abuse on anxiety-like behavior and its relation to drug seeking in mice. Specifically, dopamine sensors and 2-photon microscopy via implanted endoscopic lenses, will be used to image dopamine dynamics in the NAcc of behaving mice while they are engaging in a virtual environment (VR) mimicking drug exposure and stress conditions. Using the simulation, mice are exposed to fearful stimuli, which will be related to behavioral responses (movement distance, speed, direction) and extracellular release events. By combining these techniques, we will be able to gain a deeper understanding of how dopamine terminal signaling contributes to drug seeking. This research has the potential to shed new light on the neural relationship between drugs of abuse and anxiety. This could help to inform the development of novel drugs and treatments for this disorder.

Authors: Andrew Call. Mentors: John Chaston. Insitution: Brigham Young University. The main goal for this project is to confirm previous predictions of specific genes that may influence flies’ dietary preference to consume lactic acid bacteria (LAB). The preference of LAB is a normal phenotype that flies have, because the bacteria is essential for their gut microbiota. A previous genome-wide association study (GWAS) by another student in my mentor’s lab predicted genes that lead flies to prefer to consume diets that have live LAB. This genetically determined fly phenotype was measured by calculating the frequency and number of times the flies would choose the LAB inoculated diet over a control diet. My role will be to test if 7 genes have the influence predicted by this previous analysis. The experiment will follow close with the one previously performed by the student who predicted the genes I’m testing. I’ll be using a flyPAD which has a small arena (cage) that will hold one fly. Inside that arena are 2 wells that contain food. These wells have sensors attached to them, so each time the fly takes a sip of food, an electronic signal will be sent to a computer that keeps track of the number of sips from each well, the duration of each sip taken and time in between each sip and graph all the results taken for comparison between a control group and the test groups. I will starve 48 female mutant drosophila melanogaster for 3 hours prior to the experiment and then place them inside the flyPAD where I have previously placed 1 μl of 1:1 yeast-glucose diets in each well, however I will inoculate 0.05 μl of LAB in one of the diets. I will track each sip the flies take from each of the two foods for 1 hour. To measure accurately, there will be 2 controls also being tested. I will use flies that do not contain the genetic mutation and I will also have control arenas where both food wells do not contain LAB.I expect that any mutant that has a reduced preference for LAB-inoculated diet relative to the control diet represents a validated prediction of the previous study. In some cases, there may be no variation in preference for the control or LAB-inoculated diet, indicating a gene that does not contribute to fly preference for LAB in the diet. If none of the mutants tested validate the genome-wide association predictions, I will go back to the gene list and select one additional subset of genes to test if these influence the genetic prediction. We previously focused on genes that had multiple hits in the previous experiment, regardless of how significant the predictions were. In this second round, I will simply select the ten most significant remaining genes. Overall, this project will help confirm the previously selected genes with their association with a diet preference of lactic acid bacteria, improving the gut microbiota of Drosophila melanogaster.

Authors: Hunter Nelson. Mentors: Jamie Jensen. Insitution: Brigham Young University. Burnout is a mental condition resulting from prolonged stress in work or school. The Healthcare workforce experiences burnout much more than other career fields and many students in undergraduate STEM are pursuing a career in this field. The Pre-Health degree is one of the most competitive and demanding majors in STEM and we expect there to be high levels of burnout amongst these students. Our purpose was to gather and analyze data on the goals and burnout of pre-health care undergraduate students. We used surveys to collect data from students ranging from Freshmen to Seniors. The survey asked students questions regarding their goal motivations and feelings of burnout. Our results display a correlation between mastery-avoidance and experiencing burnout. By understanding these relationships, we can better help pre-health students avoid burnout.

Authors: Rebecca Kreutz. Mentors: John Chaston. Insitution: Brigham Young University. Previous studies of the relationship between Drosophila melanogaster and its microbiome have shown that the bacteria in fruit flies can have a large effect on life history strategy. Higher proportions of Acetobacter, a genus of aerobic bacteria, correlate with faster development to reproductive maturity and higher, earlier fecundity. Greater proportions of Lactobacillus, a genus of anaerobic bacteria, correlate with lower initial reproduction but longer lifespan and maintenance of somatic cells. Despite this, the determinants of a Drosophila’s microbiome are still not well understood. This study will explore the relationship between the depth of the food that flies mature in and the proportion of anaerobic bacteria found in the flies. To test this, I will prepare vials with varying amounts of food, place fly eggs in them, inoculate them with a mixture of Acetobacter and Lactobacillus, homogenize the flies that mature, and compare the proportions of bacteria across the different food depths. Greater food depth will mimic food that is more rotten, because as fruit rots it becomes softer and the fly larvae are able to burrow deeper. As the flies gain greater access to the inside of the fruit, there may be an increase in the proportion of anaerobic bacteria in the fly’s gut, due to the reduced access of the bacteria to the air. Because different food depths can simulate different fruit ages, this study may be able to establish a relationship between the season the flies mature and their microbiome.

Authors: Amanda Pay, Kaylee Anderson, Amber English, Jie Mei Chong. Mentors: Mary Alvarez. Insitution: Salt Lake Community College. Feasibility Analysis of Mixed Solvent Waste Recycling: A Green Chemistry ProjectUndergraduate Research Session, Green Chemistry submission Amanda Pay, Jai Mai Chong ACS Student Affiliate Advisors; Mary Alvarez, Ron V Valcarce, Wesley Sanders, Peter J Iles, John Flood This research project explores the first of the 12 principals of green chemistry, waste reduction through solvent recycling. Solvents are widely recognized to be a considerable environmental concern. Many industrial chemical processes generate significant amounts of hazardous and toxic chemical waste due to solvents used to facilitate chemical reactions. The reduction of their use is one of the most important aims of green chemistry. In response to this, solvent recyclers have been created which attempt to clean and purify solvents for re-use, thus reducing the amount of solvent waste a chemical company generates. In this project we analyzed before and after samples of mixed solvent containing hexanes, ethyl acetate, and other solvents processed with a CBG biotech solvent recycler. The results were used to improve recycler settings for solvent resolution and assess the effectiveness of waste reduction using such methods. Amanda Pay, Kaylee Anderson, Jie Mei Chong, Amber EnglishACS Student Affiliate Advisors; Mary Alvarez, Ron V Valcarce, Wesley Sanders, Peter Iles, John Flood

Authors: Luis Valdez, Mary Alvarez, Jessica Berryman, Ron Valcarce. Mentors: Jessica Berryman. Insitution: Salt Lake Community College. Plants produce & emit a diverse and substantial amount of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) into the atmosphere. These compounds play important roles in the plant’s tri-trophic interactions, responses to environmental stress, and have been shown to participate in atmospheric chemistry. Although variation in VOC emissions in plants has been extensively studied, there are gaps in knowledge on how symbiotic interactions with soil microbiota shape the VOC profile of plants in the context of environmental stress. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) are fungi that form symbiotic associations with plants by colonizing their roots & providing enhanced micronutrient & water retention in exchange for photosynthates. These associations have also been shown to enhance plant responses against biotic & abiotic stress. In this study, we will look at how the expression of heat stress- induced VOCs changes based on mycorrhizal availability in the soil. Populus b. trichocarpa saplings will be exposed to the respective temperatures of 25° C, 35° C, & 40° C for an extended period of time. Emitted volatiles will be collected and analyzed using GC-MS. For each type of temperature, emissions will be compared between saplings planted under different levels of AMF availability (low, medium, & high). We expect volatile emissions to change based on mycorrhizal availability in one of two scenarios; increased emissions due to increased phosphorus uptake from the fungus or decreased emissions due to carbon allocation to the fungus.